JinxBowman
New Member
- Joined
- Oct 23, 2012
- Messages
- 6
- Gender
- Female
- HSC
- 2013
Topics I've included are Cities of Vesuvius, The Greco-Persian Battles, Xerxes and The Greek Period between 400BC and 500BC. Enjoy and good luck today!
Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum
The Physical Environment: The Geographical Setting, Natural Features and Resources of Pompeii & Herculaneum
Mount Vesuvius is located on the Bay of Naples in the region of Campania. The volcano meant that the region and surrounding towns had extremely fertile soil. Farmlands would produce wheat, barley, cabbages, broad-beans, chickpeas, dates, figs and olives. Sheep and goats were grazed in great numbers.
Pompeii:
Located approximately 9km from Vesuvius.
Had a population of around 20 000 at the time of the eruption, the area measuring 67ha.
The main street, the Via dell Abbondanza was the main commercial road, as shown by the deep wheel grooves.
A very commercial town, the main industries included the busy seaport, resorts for tourists, cloth making and dyeing.
Exports included olive oil, wine, garum (fermented fish sauce) and woollen goods.
Herculaneum:
Located approximately 7km from Vesuvius.
Had a population of arounf 5000 at the time of the eruption, and area measuring 22ha.
Main street = Decumanus Maximus.
The main industry was fishing, however the town was much less commercial than Pompeii.
Misenum:
Located approximately 30km from Vesuvius.
This is where Pliny the Younger was during the eruption.
Stabiae:
Located approximately 5km from Vesuvius.
This is where Pliny the Elder was located during the eruption. He died on the beach.
Both Pompeii & Herculanuem had a forum, basilica, temples, amphitheatres, palaestras, theatres, tombs, thermae and macellum. They were divided into insulae (city blocks with 1-12 dwellings)
Who were the early settlers? According to legend, Herculaneum was founded by Herucles, the Greek Hero and so took his name. Historians think this means that it was settled by Greek traders in the 6th century BC. These people came from either Cumae, or Parthenope (Naples).
What were the main geographical features and resources? The region of Campania had a mild climate and a fantastic views, many prominent figures built villas in the area and used them as get-aways from the hustle and bustle of city life. The area is typically known for its Mediterranean produce including: olives, wine and fish. Cities like Pompeii were also known to export woollen goods, fruits, vegetables and textiles.
Plans & Streetscapes of Pompeii & Herculaneum
The streetscapes of 'Pompeii' and 'Herculaneum' show distinct Greek influences through the use of the grid system:
Main axial roads – 'Decumani'
Minor roads – 'Cardini'
Blocks – 'Insulae'
Both cities contained a Roman style forum where all public buildings (administration, religion, commerce) were centred around – It was the chief meeting and trading place of the citizens.
The Range of Available Sources
Limitations, Reliability & Evaluation of Sources
Written Sources:
Refer to the Campania region in general and not Pompeii & Herculaneum specifically.
There is no actual written account from Pompeii or Herculaneum.
Pliny the Younger:
Was only 17/18 years old at the time.
He was not actually at Pompeii & Herculaneum during the eruption - he was at Misenum 30km away.
He wrote his account to Tacitus 20 years after the eruption
His aim in writing was to record Pliny the Elder's death so his memory lived on.
He didn't even consider the event "worthy of serious history".
Other sources:
Were written many years after the eruption
Relied on Pliny the Younger's letters, which had limitations and flaws themselves.
Limitations:
Significant 'gaps' - there is a lack of evidence about everyday life.
Little of Herculaneum has been uncovered so far; it lay beneath 20metres of volcanic rock and a modern city.
Changing interpretations (technology, methodologies)
Archaeological Sources:
Until the 1980's there was no systematic examination of stratigraphy
Initially, those digging just tried to remove layers to get to the ground, discarding anything along the way.
Few conservation processes were implemented until recently.
Many skeletons were removed or remains manipulated.
Reconstruction, bombings during WWII and earthquakes caused great
Evidence Provided by the Sources from Pompeii & Herculaneum
The Eruption
The Economy: Trade, Commerce, Industries, Occupations
Social Structure: Men, Women, Freedmen, Slaves
Local Political Life
Everyday Life: Leisure Activities, Food & Dining, Clothing, Health, Baths, Water Supply, Sanitation
Public Buildings: Basilicas, Temples, Fora, Theatres, Palaestra, Amphitheatres
Private Buildings: Villas, Houses, Shops
Influence of Greek & Egyptian Cultures: Art, Architecture, Religion
Religion: Temples, Household Gods, Foreign Cults, Tombs.
Spartan Society: The Battle of Leuctra
Geographical setting:
Natural features
West of Sparta was the Taygetus mountain range, and to the east was the Parnon mountain range. To the north was the Arcadian mountain range. Combined, these mountains were a natural protective barrier around Sparta that isolated it from the rest of Greece. Gytheion was the main Spartan harbour.
Social structure and political organisation:
‘The Great Rhetra’
Spartan Constitution, compiled by Lycurgus. Oracle of Delphi, constitution in verse.
Roles and privileges of the Kings
Zeos Sparta and Zeos Uranios - the right of making war against whatsoever land they please, and that no man of the Spartans shall hinder this right, or if he do, he shall be subject to the curse; and that when they go on expeditions the kings shall go out first and return last; that a hundred picked men shall be their guard upon expeditions; and that they shall use in their goings forth to war as many cattle as they desire, and take both the hides and the backs of all that are sacrificed. These are their privileges in war, and in peace moreover things have been assigned to them as follows: if any sacrifice is performed at the public charge, it is the privilege of the kings to sit down to the feast before all other, and that the attendants shall begin with them first, and serve to each of them a portion of everything double of that which is given to the other guests, and that they shall have the first pouring of libations and the hides of the animals slain in sacrifice; that on every new moon and seventh day of the month there shall be delivered at the public charge to each one of these a full-grown victim in the temple of Apollo, and a measure of barley-groats and a Spartan "quarter" of wine; and at all the games they shall have seats of honor specially set apart for them.
The government e.g. ephorate, gerousia and ekklesia
Ephorate - One of a body of five elected magistrates exercising a supervisory power over the kings of Sparta. Leaders of ancient Sparta and shared power with the Spartan kings. Five ephors were elected annually, who "swore on behalf of the city", while the kings swore for themselves. The ephors were elected by the popular assembly, and all citizens were eligible for election. They were forbidden to be reelected. They provided a balance for the two kings, who rarely cooperated with each other. The ephors did not have to kneel down before the Kings of Sparta and were held in high esteem by the citizens, because of the importance of their powers and because of the holy role they earned throughout their functions.
Gerousia - Spartan council of elders. This governmental body is a gerontocracy that was made up of 28 60-year-old Spartan males and the two Kings. The Gerousia prepared motions or rhetrai ("rhetra") for the wider citizen assembly, the Apella, to vote on. The Gerousia could also veto motions passed by the Apella and was consulted by the ephors in matters of interpretation of the law. Additionally, the Gerousia filled the role of a supreme court. It could try murder cases — and had the power to condemn, fine, or banish. It could even try the kings for any alleged crime. As a Supreme Court, it had the ultimate say as to what was or was not lawful. In effect, it was the supreme institution in the Spartan constitution, and could override any decision by any other organ in the Spartan political system.
Ecclesia - Principal assembly of the democracy of ancient Athens during its "Golden Age" (480–404 BCE). It was the popular assembly, open to all male citizens with 2 years of military service.The assembly was responsible for declaring war, military strategy and electing the strategoi and other officials. It was responsible for nominating and electing magistrates, thus indirectly electing the members of the Areopagus. It had the final say on legislation and the right to call magistrates to account after their year of office. Votes were taken by a show of hands.
Social structure e.g. Spartiates, perioeci, ‘inferiors’ and helots
Spartiates - Those who could trace their ancestry back to the original, or first inhabitants of the city. they enjoyed all of the political and legal rights of the state. They were also the only ones who could participate in politics. They served in the military, led the military and ran Sparta.
Perioeci - Foreigners that divided the Spartiate and helots. Due to this primary function, they had many rights and could own land. Although they had to pay taxes, life was swell for the peroeci. The perioeci also had the right to learn how to read and write. They served in the military, as everyone else did, and were in charge of the trade and communication with Sparta's neighbors.
Helots - Disliked by the Spartans. The helots came from what the Spartans call Helos. Helos was south of Sparta, but due to Sparta's growing population, Sparta began to expand its territory when they came to a village (Helos). They invaded this village, killed its inhabitants and took some as prisoners. The helots were used as slaves, but were able to earn their freedom by joining the military. Even if they earned their freedom, they were still treated like dirty helots. A few times each year it became legal in Sparta to kill any helot, even if they were free.
Role of the Spartan army
Territorial control and security.
External:
- Assisted in treated with all Peloponnesian states except Argos and Achaea.
- Guraranteed aid to members of the Peloponnesian League.
Internal:
- Helot Revolts (Prevention and Suppression).
Control of the helots e.g. the military, syssitia and krypteia
Sparta embarked on the conquest of the neighboring state Messenia. This acquisition of a large piece of territory and a large conquered population seems to have both provided the basis for the system of helotage and required the existence of a large military force to keep the potentially rebellious Messenians under control.The Spartiates thus became a permanently armed master class, living off the labour of the helots and preventing rebellion through constant vigilance. To maintain the social system of the city, it was necessary to have a force ready to oppose any uprising of the helots (an event which occurred several times in the classical period).
Syssitia - Syssitia promotes unity within the Spartan warrior ranks, so they would have more morale to fight in the Wars against the helots. This is linked to the fact that the dominant military strategy at the time was the 'hoplite' formation where unity among troops were so important.
Krypteia - Krypteia members stalked the helot villages and surrounding countryside, spying on the servile population. Their mission was to root-out potential sedition. Troublesome helots could be summarily executed. Such brutal oppression of the helots permitted the Spartans to control the agrarian population and devote themselves to military practice. It may also have contributed to the Spartans' reputation for stealth since a boy who got caught was punished by whipping.
The educational system e.g. the agoge
Rigorous education and training regimen mandated for all male Spartan citizens, except for the firstborn son in the ruling houses, Eurypontid and Agiad. The training involved learning stealth, cultivating loyalty to the Spartan group, military training (e.g. pain tolerance), hunting, dancing, singing and social (communicating) preparation.[1] The word "agoge" meant in ancient Greek, rearing, but in this context generally meant leading, guidance or training.
The role and status of women e.g. land ownership, inheritance and education
They controlled their own properties, as well as the properties of male relatives who were away with the army. It is estimated that women were the sole owners of at least 35% of all land and property in Sparta. The laws regarding a divorce were the same for both men and women. Unlike women in Athens, if a Spartan woman became the heiress of her father because she had no living brothers to inherit (an epikleros), the woman was not required to divorce her current spouse in order to marry her nearest paternal relative. partan women received as much education as men, as well as a substantial amount of physical education and gymnastic training. They rarely married before the age of 20, and unlike Athenian women who wore heavy, concealing clothes and were rarely seen outside the house, Spartan women wore short dresses and went where they pleased. It was possible for them to appear entirely nude even publicly, which they did customarily only at festivals, as did the men. Many women played a significant role in the history of Sparta. Gorgo, Queen of Sparta, heiress to the throne and the wife of Leonidas I, was very powerful within the government and, as Herodotus records, famously assisted both her father, Cleomenes, in resisting a bribe and later was responsible for Sparta decoding the warning the Persian forces were about to invade Greece when, after Spartan generals could not decode a wooden tablet covered in wax, she ordered them to clear the wax, revealing the warning. She played an important role at war time.[35] When asked by a woman from Attica why Spartan women were the only women in the world who could rule men, she stated, famously, it was because only Spartan women give birth to real men.
Economy
Land ownership e.g. agriculture, kleroi and helots
Kleros: an allotment of land given to each newborn Spartan boy.
"Lycurgus' second, and most revolutionary, reform was his redistribution of the land. For there was dreadful inequality: many destitute people without means were congregating in the city, while wealth had poured completely into just a few hands. In order to expel arrogance, envy, crime, luxury and those yet older and more serious political afflictions, wealth and poverty, Lycurgus persuaded the citizens to pool all the land and then redistribute it afresh. Then they would all live on equal terms with one another, with the same amount of property to support each, and they would seek to be first only in merit. There would be no distinction or inequality between individuals except for what censure of bad conduct or praise of good would determine.” - Plutarch (Life of Lycurgus 8)
Technology e.g. weapons, armour and pottery
A Spartan hoplite (footsoldier) wielded a pike of seven and a half to nine feet in length, donned a helmet, breastplate, and greaves and carried a short sword at his waist. The sword used by the hoplites (=soldiers), who formed the undefeated main phalanx of the Spartan army, the short sword, was ideal for close combat and extemely lethal in the hands of the trained Spartans. He held so large a shield that it could be used as a stretcher to carry wounded from the field. This shield protected its bearer's left side and front, and extended far leftward to protect his neighbor's right side.
The sword was used by the officers (lochagoi) of the famous Spartan infantry for close combat at battles like Thermopylae and Plataies.
Economic roles of the periokoi and helots
Periokoi - Most without land ownership so they turned to industry and trade/ commerce, especially in woollen goods and iron work; they had a monopoly of trade; they generally were well off despite taxes to Spartiati.
Helots - Helots provided the Spartans with a workforce which would free them for public service.
Economic exchange e.g. iron bars, trade
Spartans did not trade with anyone due to the fact that outsiders were not allowed inside their city-states. Also, insiders were not allowed out.
Religion, Death and Burial
Gods and Goddesses e.g. Artemis, Poseidon and Apollo
"[In Sparta] is the tomb of Tainaros, after whom they say the headland was named that juts out into the sea. Here are sanctuaries of Poseidon Hippokourios (Horse-tending) and of Artemis Aiginaia (Goat-goddess)." - Pausanias, (Description of Greece)
Artemis - Also known as Aeginaea. Goddess of the wilderness, the hunt and wild animals, and fertility. Festival of Artemis Orthia, held at Sparta, when young Spartan boys would try to steal cheeses from the altar. As they tried they would be whipped, the meaning of Orthia and the nature of the ritual whipping has been lost and there is no logical explanation or translation.
Poseidon - Poseidon (a.k.a Neptune)is equal in power to his brother, Zeus. He is the God of the Seas, rivers, winds, floods and drought, earthquakes, storms, weather and tempests and also ruler of Atlantis. According to Pausanias, Poseidon was one of the caretakers of the oracle at Delphi before Olympian Apollo took it over. Apollo and Poseidon worked closely in many realms: in colonization, for example, Delphic Apollo provided the authorization to go out and settle, while Poseidon watched over the colonists on their way, and provided the lustral water for the foundation-sacrifice. Xenophon's Anabasis describes a group of Spartan soldiers in 400–399 BC singing to Poseidon a paean—a kind of hymn normally sung for Apollo.
Apollo - Apollo is a god of light and the sun, truth and prophecy, healing, plague, music, poetry, and more. Apollo is the nephew of Poseidon and Artemis’ twin brother. Carnea was the name of one of the great national festivals of Sparta, held in honour of Apollo Carneus. The chief centre of his worship was Sparta, where the Carnea took place every year from the 7th to the 15th of the month Carneus. During this period all military operations were suspended.
Festivals e.g. Hyakinthia, Gymnopaedia and Karneia
Hyakinthia - The Hyacinthia lasted three days. Their details have been passed down to us through the descriptions in Athenaeus and Didymus[disambiguation needed]. The first day was given over to mourning for the death of the hero: sacrifices were offered to the dead, banquests were stark and without pomp or decoration, the sacrificial breads were very plain.
The second day was one of celebration for his rebirth. The young people played the cithara and the aulos, and sang of the glory of Apollo. Others participated in horse races. Numerous choirs competed in town, singing country songs and dancing. Amyclae was also the location of parades of carts decorated by the girls and women of Sparta. Numerous sacrifices were offered, exclusively goats, with the occasion of the κοπίς, kopis, banquets where the citizens invited their friends and relatives. The helots had the right to participate in the celebrations, as did any foreigners: "they treat not only their countrymen, but any foreigners who happen by" (Athenaeus, IV, 138F). The kopis took place under special tents known as σκηναί (skēnaí), a characteristic trait of ancient country festivals.
The third day is not described in detail, it is possible that it was more solemn, or that mysteries were held. It is also known that for this holiday, the Spartan women wove a chiton (χιτών / chitōn, or "tunic") which is then offered to the god — a tradition similar to the peplos offered to Athena at Athens upon the occasion of the Panathenaic Games.
The Hyacinthia was a major Spartan holiday. Xenophon, in the Hellenics IV, 5, 11, reports that the Spartans interrupted their campaigns in order to be able to return to Laconia so as to participate.Pausanias writes that they even negotiated a truce especially for this purpose. According to Thucydides, upon the peace of Nicias, Athens, in order to prove its good will towards Sparta, promised to assist at the celebrations.
Gymnopaedia - The Gymnopaedia, in ancient Sparta, was a yearly celebration during which naked youths displayed their athletic and martial skills through the medium of war dancing. The custom was introduced in 668 BC, concurrently with the introduction of naked athletics, oiling the body for exercise so as to highlight its beauty.
Carneia - Five unmarried youths (Καρνεᾶται) were chosen by lot from each [tribe] for four years, to superintend the proceedings, the officiating priest being called ἀγητής ("leader"). A man decked with garlands (possibly the priest himself) started running, pursued by a band of young men called σταφυλοδρόμοι ("running with bunches of grapes in their hands"); if he was caught, it was a guarantee of good fortune to the city; if not, the reverse.
In the second part of the festival nine tents were set up in the country, in each of which nine citizens, representing the phratries (or obae), feasted together in honour of the god (for huts or booths extemporized as shelters; see W. Warde Fowler in Classical Review, March 1908, on the country festival in Tibullus ii. I). According to Demetrius of Scepsis (in Athenaeus iv. 141), the Carnea was an imitation of life in camp, and everything was done in accordance with the command of a herald. In regard to the sacrifice, which doubtless formed part of the ceremonial, all that is known is that a ram was sacrificed at Thurii. Other indications point to the festival having assumed a military character at an early date, as might have been expected among the warlike Dorians, although some scholars deny this. The general meaning of the agrarian ceremony is clear, and has numerous parallels in north European harvest-customs, in which an animal (or man disguised as an animal) was pursued by the reapers, the animal if caught being usually killed; in any case, both the man and the animal represent the vegetation spirit. E. H. Binney in Classical Review (March 1905) suggests that the story of Alcestis was performed at the Carnea (to which it may have become attached with the name of Apollo) as a vegetation drama, and "embodied a Death and Resurrection ceremony."
Funeral customs and rituals
Spartans were encouraged to view death as a normal part of life – so they would give their lives for the state. • Burials within the city – encourage not to fear death • Were given graves / tombs only if died in battle (male) or in childbirth (female) or were buried in simple pits. • Soldiers were buried wrapped in their red cloaks with olive leaves placed around • Warriors could be buried on the battlefield with grave markers ‘in war’ placed to identify the body. Funerary rituals were conducted by female relatives and included: – Laying out the body – Funeral procession – The Burial • Grave goods/offerings were not placed in graves • A strict period of mourning was enforced - 11 days - and the 12th day was marked by a sacrifice to Demeter and the end of grieving. Spartan king burials were dealt with differently. • Herodotus is our main source in investigating the death and burial of a king. He states that kings received elaborate burial rituals in keeping with their divine origins and religious significance ‘Spartans held their kings as demi-gods, worthy of a hero’s funeral.’
Cultural Life
Architecture e.g. Amyklaion, Menelaion and the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia
Amyklaion - The Acropolis of Amyklai and the Temenos of the Sanctuary of Apollo and Hyakinthos. Preserved at the site are the retaining wall, circuit walls and traces of foundations dating to various periods, and a circular altar. The Throne of Apollo Amyklaios. Stoa-like building or altar, which surrounded on three sides the colossal column-shaped statue of the god. It was decorated with relief representations and plastic compositions. The tomb-altar of the local god or hero Hyakinthos was used as the pedestal of the statue. Architectural parts of a composite style, both Doric and Ionic, are exhibited in the Sparta Museum. It is an exquisite work of Bathykles, an artist from Magnesia of Asia Minor, dated to the Archaic period.
Menelaion - There is an important Mycenaean site known as the Menelaion which lies some distance outside Sparta on the other side of the river on the eastern side, the opposite side to Mount Taygetus. Indeed most of the dramatic photos of Sparta with Taygetus in the background are taken from the Menelaion. The most dramatic part of the Menelaion is a rectangular foundation that was a heroon, that is a shrine to a hero, in this case Menelaus, the King of Sparta. It was originally constructed in the eighth century BC that is probably five centuries after the presumed date of the Trojan War. Numerous lead placards have been found there, many of them dedicated to Menelaus which gives proof of what it was. In its present form it is a rebuild of the fifth century BC, constructed of fine ashlar masonry.
Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia - The sanctuary is located in a natural basin between Limnai and the west bank of the Eurotas River, outside ancient Sparta, above the reach of all but the severest flooding. The oldest relics, potteryfragments from the late Greek Dark Ages, indicate that the cult has probably existed since the 10th century BCE, but not before (Rose in Dawkins 1929:399).[3] Originally, the cult celebrated its rituals on a rectangular earthen altar, built up by the ashes of successive sacrifices. At the very beginning of the 8th century BCE, the temenos was paved with river stones and surrounded by a trapezoidal wall. A wood and stone altar was then built as well as a temple. The works were financed by the wars waged by Sparta.
A second temple was built in 570 BCE, during the joint reign of Leo of Sparta and Agasicles as military successes provided funds. The terrain was raised and consolidated, undoubtedly following erosion caused by the Evrotas. An altar and a temple of limestone, oriented the same way as the previous buildings, were built on a bed of river sand. The surrounding wall was also enlarged, and at this stage took on a rectangular form. The second temple was entirely rebuilt in the 2nd century BCE, except for the altar, which was replaced in its turn in the 3rd century CE when the Romans built an amphitheatre to welcome tourists to the diamastigosis (see below); its concrete preserved many fragments and inscriptions of the earlier structures.
Everyday Life
Daily life and leisure
Athletics, cock and boar fighting, hunting, banqueting, horse racing and equestrian sports.
Food and clothing
Food - In Ancient Spartan society food was incredibly basic consisting of mainly barley, cheese, fish, some meats and wine. However, meat, especially red meats were quite rare. But sources have found that Spartans ate pork, poultry and fish. Though according to archaeological sources (picture), hunting was very much apart of society and common game meat were wild boar, venison and hare. Sparta was most known for it’s black broth, which included pork, vinegar and blood. Greek States however, considered the Spartan diet to be strange and unappetising. The helots grew food for all of Sparta, including the military messes as the syssitia ensured that all Spartiates ate the same food. Spartiate boys also were encouraged to steal food; this was considered good practice and training for life in the army. Bread made of wheat was rare and was only consumed on special occasions. Barley was a staple food source and was used as a substitute to make bread as well as porridge. Other food sources were honey from local hives, olives and olive oil and cheese made from goat’s milk. A range of fruit was also available to Spartans, as ancient sources have found that figs were a huge contribution to the syssitia.
Clothing - Spartan soldiers wore, Crimson tunics and cloaks, as symbols of wealth and power, helmets, muscular cuirass (breastplate and back plate fastened together) with leather pteruges (leather strip skirt), leg greaves. They carried a spear, and a shield. Women wore wore plain or brightly coloured and patterned chitons, and were short because they did a lot of exercised. They also wore leather sandals. Normal people wore plain or brightly coloured and patterned coloured tunics, with leather sandals. Young Boys Aged 7-12 wore a tunic, the Chilton, wore no shoes and had their hair cut short.
Marriage customs
This spartan Marriage customs was unique as it was not praised in other Greek city states. According to Plutarch Spartan girls was married when 'they were ripe for it' approximately in their late teens when their bodies are fully matured and fertile. It was the law for a Spartan boy to be married about the age of 18 where they were full time warriors. Marriage was by capture, by which a man would choose a bride and carry her off, is thought to have been practiced in Sparta, indicating a lack of choice on the girl’s part. Through Plutarch we have a understanding of the marriage rituals, the bridesmaid took charge in the capture of the girl as she shaved the brides head and clothed her in male garments, and laid her down alone on a mattress in the dark. Then the groom would carry her to the bed after his daily meal from the mess and spend a short time with her, and depart discretely and sleep wherever he usually did along with is fellow soldiers.The husband continued to visit his wife in secret for some time after the marriage.The reasons for cutting the bride’s hair and dressing her in men’s clothing has been widely debated my many modern scholars some theories includes that is is a implication of chastity or a subjection of the bride to her husband and to ease a young bridegroom into unfamiliar sexual intercourse with a woman rather than a man. It is thought that some sort of pre nupitual wedding feast took place among the women only. Special cakes in the shapes of breast were eaten, and a hymn, Alkman's 'Partheneion,' was sung by young girls. Married life for a young spartan bride has been described as a trialed marriage. It is believed that the ceremony were kept a secret until a child was produced. If the wife was barren then a new marriage contract could be arranged. Both Plutarch and Xenophon suggest that the nature of marriage practices and households was designed to make young Spartans of either gender look forward to marriage and the production of children rather than recoil from it or see it as a burden.There was unusual freedom in sexual relationships, according to Plutarch and Xenophon wives were swapped by other men for the purpose of reproducing. Plutarch claims this selective breeding program was advocated by Lykurgus who thought just as the breeding of dogs and horses depended on having the best sires, so also the best human stock should be used to breed for the benefit of the Spartan society.
Occupations
Spartan men: warriors
Spartan women: childbearers
Perioikoi: craftsmen, traders, fishermen
Helots: farmers, domestic duties
The Near East: Xerxes
Historical Context
Geography, topography and resources of the Persian Empire
The huge size of the empire meant that there were great variations in the terrain and resources.These variations had an effect on communications, events and the amount of tribute paid by the different areas. The empire stretched about 1800 kilometres from the Caspian Sea in the north to the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean in the south. It extended about 3600 kilometres from Egypt and the coast of Ionian in the west to the Indus River in the east. The area included many different nationalities: Greeks, Syrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, and Indians.The central part of the empire, where the Persians first settled, is a great plateau at an altitude of between 1000 and 2000 kilometres above sea level, situated between the Caspian Sea in the north and the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in the south. The empire was rich in resources. Quarries produced metals such as iron, copper, gold, lead and tin, stone for building such as marble and alabaster, and many precious and semi-precious stones. There were many wild animals and birds: lions, bears, hares, goats, and ostriches. The empire produced cereal crops such as barley and wheat, fruit and vines. The Oxus River nearby was also very productive. Forests were exploited for their timber for building purposes. Trade and commerce flourished in times of peace.
Overview of Persian political, social and military structures
The Persian political, social and military structures were all in place when Xerxes became king. The king was at the head of all Persian political, social and military structures.
The Persian king:
- Was an absolute monarch, king of kings
- owned all land and its peoples
- was owed obedience by all subjects
- was expected to be a good leader
- delegated the tasks of ruling to royalty and nobles
- had a special relationship with the god Ahura Mazda
- Was not divine
- was descended from Achaemenes, founder of Persia.
To the Persians, the ideal of Persian manhood was a warrior, one who could ride and shoot arrows. The nucleus of the army consisted of specially picked men, all Persians: the 10 000 Immortals. Custom decreed that all men up to 50 years of age had an obligation to serve their community as royal warriors.
The army consisted of a professional core of Persians and Medes. They manned the garrisons at key points throughout the empire, at river crossings, mountain passes and on routes connecting provincial capitals with frontiers. The officers were Persians (many related to the king) and Medes. Native (local) officers excited but they were junior. Conscripting men for the satrapies could increase the army greatly in times of war.
The Persians themselves were not a maritime power but had naval forces through their acquisition of Phoenicia, Ionia and Egypt. They had a policy of the army and navy being in contact with each other at all times during campaigns. The shops were also used to carry supplies for the army. There were Persian admirals in charge of the fleet, but they had very little experience in naval warfare and were dependent on their native commanders.
Persian kingship:
Religious policy – beliefs, sacrifices, tolerance, or lack of tolerance
Administration of empire
Building program – inscriptions, creations, buildings
Warfare and expansion of empire – of all kings, whether they failed or not
Legitimacy and public image – legitimacy of rule
Darius appears to have begun the worship of Ahura Mazda; Xerxes continued this policy making some important modifications of his own.
Expansion of the Persian empire
The vast empire that Xerxes inherited was the culmination of the work of the first three kings. The empire was established by Xerxes’ grandfather, Cyrus the Great, who had inherited the kingdom of Anshan in about 560BC. He was subject to the Medes in the north. Cyrus defeated Astyages, king of the Medes, in about 550BC and became king of Media as well as Anshan. Cyrus defeated in turn the Lydians, the Ionians, Bactrians, and Babylonians, but was killed fighting the Scythians in 530BC. Cyrus’ son Cambyses conquered Egypt but died on his way back to Persia. Darius I, Xerxes’ father, became king and put down revolts throughout the empire. Darius aimed to conquer Greece. He sent a combined army/navy expedition around northern Greece but the navy was wrecked in a storm. He sent a naval expedition across the Aegean Sea but the Persians were defeated by the Athenians at Marathon. He was preparing for another attempt but died before it was ready.
Overview of religion in the Persian empire
The Persians were very devoted to their religion. According to the prophet Zoroaster, a religious prophet and reformer, who lived in the seventh century BC in Eastern Persia, the god Ahura Mazda created man, light and darkness and all else both material and spiritual. Most important among Ahura Mazda’s creations were two opposing forces: one, representing “Truth”, was called Spenta Mainyu, the Holy Spirit; the other, Angra Mainyu, the Destructive Spirit, included the “Lie”. Both powers were constantly at work on men whose moral responsibility was to choose between them. The god would judge a man after death: if the man had chosen good, he would receive eternal afterlife of ease and prosperity; if evil, his lot would be everlasting torment. The sacred book of the Zoroastrians was the Avesta. Ahura Mazda bestowed the kingship on the Achaemenids and because of this was given prominence in royal inscriptions. The Magi were hereditary priests, probably Median, who worked at interpreting the King’s dreams and made prophecies. They made sacrifices and accompanied the army on campaigns. Rituals are not clear but sacred fires were maintained in special buildings usually constructed as towers. The Persian kings tolerated other religions in the empire, probably for political reasons. Foreign gods were worshipped in Egypt, Babylon and other areas on the king’s behalf. Payments to foreign gods are also recorded.
Background and rise to prominence
Family background and status
Xerxes was born a prince in the royal court and would have had all the respect and prestige associated with his position. Xerxes was not the eldest son of King Darius I. Darius had three older sons by another wife while he was still a commoner. After he became king, Darius married Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great. Xerxes was the eldest son of this marriage. Xerxes was the son of a king, grandson of the founder of the empire and the son with the most royal blood. Xerxes had possibly been viceroy or governor of Babylon for 12 years and, if so, this would have given him good experience in government and administration. Herodotus recorded that Persian males were educated between the ages of five and twenty, and that they were taught “to ride, to use the bow and to speak the truth” (The Histories; Herodotus; trans. by A. de Selincourt; p. 98)
The following is an extract from a text inscribed by Xerxes’ father, Darius, on his tomb at Naqsh-i Rustam: “Trained am I both with hands and feet. As a horseman I am a good horseman. As bowman I am a good bowman both afoot and on horseback. As a spearman I am a good spearman both afoot and on horseback.” (Old Persian; R.G Kent; p. 140)
Some scholars have suggested that Xerxes shared a co-regency with his father in the last eleven years of Darius’ reign. This is based on a Persepolis inscription in which Xerxes is said to have become king after Darius ‘left the throne’. Darius, then, may have stepped aside in favour of his son. Another version of this same text, in the Akkadian language uses the term ‘he went to his fate’. This, according to M.A Dandamaev, indicates that Darius died before Xerxes’ accession, thus excluding the possibility of a co-regency. Xerxes was the eldest grandson of Cyrus the Great, and the son of Darius and Atossa, Cyrus’ daughter.
Succession to kingship
The succession of Xerxes to the Persian throne after the death of his father Darius, appears to have gone smoothly. There was no challenge to the throne unlike that to latter kings. Darius’ eldest son was Artabazanes, who was born before his father was king, by a commoner wife. Xerxes was born after his father’s accession to the throne. His mother Atossa was the daughter of Cyrus the Great. Sometime after 498BC, Xerxes appears to have become his father’s representative in Babylon. Xerxes also appears in reliefs at Persepolis behind his father Darius. According to Ctesias, Xerxes’ brother Ariamenes, satrap of Bactria, contested the throne but was won over by gifts and the promise that he would be second in the kingdom after Xerxes. Ariamenes crowned the new King and remained loyal, dying a hero at Salamis. Herodotus gives a different version: a violent quarrel broke out between Darius’ sons over the succession. A deposed Spartan king named Demeratus told Darius that in Sparta the custom was for the son born after his father became king to become king himself. Darius proclaimed Xerxes heir. Herodotus believed that Xerxes would have become king anyway, ‘because of the immense influence of Atossa’. An inscription dating to the beginning of Xerxes’ reign alludes to his power struggle: “Other sons of Darius there were – thus unto Ahura Mazda was the desire – Darius my father made me the greatest after himself”.
J.M Cook points out that Xerxes had a stronger claim than his brother because his mother, Atossa, was the daughter of Cyrus the Great. (The Persian Empire; J.M Cook; p. 74) An inscription from Xerxes’ reign clearly shows that he was proud of his Achaemenid ancestry. Like Darius, he claimed the divine sanction of Ahura Mazda for his reign. “A great god is Ahura Mazda…who made Xerxes king, one king of many…I am Xerxes, the great king…song of Darius the king, an Achaemenid, a Persian…by the favour of Ahura Mazda…” (History of the Persian Empire; A.T Olmstead; p. 231)
Career
Administration of the Persian empire
The empire was a hereditary monarchy (king who inherited the throne from his father). The descendants of Achaemenes, the Achaemenids, formed the royal dynasty and ruled by the grace of Ahura Mazda. The Great King was not a god, but an absolute monarch, administering the realm from his palaces. The king had considerable assistance in administering the empire. High officials were appointed form the royal family and nobles as they were more likely to be loyal to the king. The empire was divided into administrative areas called satrapies. When Xerxes became king there were over 20, each ruled by a satrap responsible to the king. The king also appointed a satrap’s secretary and commander of the garrison. The satrap collected tribute, raised military levies, dispensed justice, administered the economy and minted silver coinage. The law was administered locally with a right of appeal to the satrap or even the Great king himself, assisted by a panel of royal judges who formed a High Court and held office for life. Wherever possible, the Persian rulers tried to keep local institutions in each new area to prevent disruption.
Revolts in the empire: Egypt, Babylon
1. Egypt:
Given encouragement by the Persian defeat at Marathon, Egypt rebelled in 486BC in protest against a rise in taxes designed to finance the invasion of Greece, against the corruption of the Persian administration and against the policy of skilled workers begin taken to work as labourers on building projects. Darius died before he could put down the revolt. Xerxes may have gone to Egypt himself. By 484BC, the revolt had been suppressed. Property of many temples was confiscated and the treatment of the people became harsher. Xerxes’ brother Achaemenes was appointed as satrap. Xerxes broke with the tradition of posing as native ruler and built no temples. He became an unpopular king in Egypt. Shortly before the death of Darius, the satrapy of Egypt rose in revolt, apparently as a protest against the heavy taxes imposed by the Persians. Xerxes was left to deal with this protest, which he ruthlessly suppressed. He showed Egypt no mercy. Previously Cyrus, Cambyses and Darius had adopted Egyptian pharaonic titles but Xerxes did not. He appears to have authorised no buildings in Egypt, and Egyptian officials filled only the lowest positions in administration. Also, Xerxes confiscated temple lands, earning him the hatred of Egyptian priests. He then appointed his brother Achaemenes to replace the satrap Pherendates, who had apparently been killed during the revolt.
2. Babylon
Two revolts in Babylon occurred: one in 484BC and the other in 482BC when the satrap Zopyrus was killed. The Babylonians were discontented because of taxation, the loss of skilled workers and the upkeep of the Persian court and garrison there. Xerxes sent his brother-in-law Megabyzus to crush the revolt. Babylon was severely punished: the fortifications were torn down, the leaders were executed and their land was given to Persian nobles. A minor gold statue from the temple of Bel Marduk was taken, a priest who objected to this was killed, the Euphrates River was diverted to divide the city and taxation remained high. Xerxes seems to have dropped the title of “King of Babylon” from his official titles. The satrapy of “Babylon and the Lands Beyond the River” lost its identity by being divided into two smaller satrapies, reducing Babylon’s political status. Babylon does not seem to have suffered economically after the revolt. The Babylonians seemed to have resented the heavy taxation imposed by Xerxes and the forced removal of labourers to work on his monuments. When Babylon revolted for the second, and last time, Xerxes was not so lenient. Among the punishments inflicted on the Babylonians was the destruction of the fortifications of Babylon, the execution of some priests, the infliction of damage on major religious sanctuaries and the confiscation and removal to Persepolis of valuable religious property. Babylon lost its former political significance as a special province of the Achaemenid empire and was absorbed into the new satrapy of Assyria.
Foreign policy: role in invasion of the Greek mainland
Xerxes inherited his father’s plan to add Greece to the Persian empire, to take revenge on Athens for the help they had given the Ionains during the Ionian Revolt and for the defeat inflicted on the Persians at the Battle of Marathon in 490BC. Until 483BC, revolts and internal problems had delayed Xerxes’ plans for invasion.
Internal pressure
There was significant pressure within Persia for Xerxes to invade Greece. For example, as told by Herotodus, there was a lot of pressure from Mardonius, Xerxes’ brother-in-law who wanted to be governor of Greece. European Greece would have been a profitable addition to the empire, certainly, but at the centre of Xerxes’ decision there must have been the feeling that he was honour bound to attack the Athenians since his father had failed to punish them.
Reasons for the attack on Greece
It is believed that Xerxes was greatly influenced by his cousin Mardonius, who was ambitious to become the satrap of newly conquered territory. He urged Xerxes to carry out Darius’ plan to attack Greece. Queen Atossa was a very ambitious woman who also urged Xerxes to attack Greece, as she wanted her son to be acclaimed a worthy successor to Darius. She wanted to see the boundaries of the empire extended. Xerxes himself wanted to acquire new territory and to be seen as a worthy successor to Darius. :Only Xerxes’ uncle Artabanus felt that the enterprise was too ambitious and feared defeat for the Persians. Xerxes received envoys from Thessaly promising aid, and the exiled family from Athens, the Peisistraditids, was willing to help Persia. Since the attack by Darius across the Aegean Sea had failed, Xerxes decided to invade Greece from the north. The army was to be supported by the fleet.
Evaluation
Impact and influence on his time
Xerxes ruled the Persian empire for 21 years. His impact on the Persian world was mainly in the field of architecture. His impact on the Greek world was enormous, providing the writers of the fifth century BC with a great deal of literary material and the opportunity to boast for centuries. A century and a half later, Philip and Alexander of Macedon set about redressing the wrongs done to the Greeks during the so-called Persian wars.
Impact on Persia
Defeat by the Greeks damaged Xerxes’ prestige in the eyes of the Greeks of the Persian empire. The defeat showed that the Persians could be beaten in battle even when they had a huge army. The defeat did not affect the empire. There were no major revolts during the remainder of Xerxes’ reign. The Persians had carried out their main aim – to punish Athens. The Persians lost a small amount of territory in Ionia.
Impact on Greece
The victories of Greece increased Greek pride. The campaign became an inspiration for historians and playwrights such as Herodotus and Aeschylus. The Greeks had not destroyed the Persians. The Persians continued to play a part in Greek history for the next 150 years. The Greeks knew nothing of Persepolis and therefore could not judge Persia of Xerxes fully. Philip and Alexander of Macedon used the Persian invasion and the destruction of Athens as a pretext to invade the Persian empire.
Assessment of his life and reign
Successes
Smooth accession to the throne
Rebellions in Egypt and Babylon put down
Mobilised an enormous army
Moved the army a great distance into unknown territory
Constructed bridges over Hellespont and Strymon River
Constructed canal at Mount Athos
Organised huge navy
Organised supplies
Persuaded Macedonia, Thessaly and Thebes to medise
Defeated Greeks at Thermopylae
Sacked Athens, burnt temples in revenge for Sardis and Marathon
Returned safely from Greece
Finished Darius’ building projects at Susa
Mobilised workers and built extensively at Persepolis
Built on citadel at Van in Turkey
Extended empire to the east and added Saka
Promoted religion, destroyed daevas, assisted Jews
Ruled for 21 years
Accepted enormous tribute
Failures
Had to punish Babylon twice for rebellion
Troops and leaders not trained to match Greek tactics
Did not reconnoitre Greek coast
Outwitted by Themistocles at Salamis
Lost battles of Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale
Lost numerous male relatives in Greece
Lost many Immortals and foreign troops
Lost territory in Greece and India
Could not control harem intrigues
Was assassinated
Ancient and modern images and interpretations of Xerxes.
Ancient interpretations
Herodotus was born about 484BC and is the most contemporary of the ancient sources. He also travelled in the Persian empire. He is probably the most balanced writer, presenting Xerxes as generous and compassionate, appreciative of natural beauty, but unstable, intolerant of criticism and weak-willed.
Aeschylus was also a contemporary, who fought at Marathon and possibly at Salamis. He portrays Xerxes in his play The Persians as a weakling to be despised. He wished to demonstrate that everything Greek was superior.
Xenophon, writing in the fourth century BC, sees Xerxes as a tyrant and a womaniser.
Later ancient historians have followed this tradition. Although Pausanius tells that Xerxes’ achievements were glittering and Josephus praises his piety, Aelian calls him ridiculous and Cicero despises him.
Modern interpretations
Early scholars saw him as debauched and slothful, weak and degenerate; later scholars are more balanced, trying to judge him in the Persian context of his day.
P.Green (The Greco-Persian Wars, Berkeley, 1996) sums up the position: “Our traditional picture of Xerxes is a caricature, put together from hostile, and faintly contemptuous, Greek propaganda. We see him as…a cowardly despot ruled by his women and his eunuchs…cruel in victory, spineless in defeat. Persian sources…reveal a very different man. Tall, regal and handsome he stands in the Persepolis reliefs, and his proclamations have a ringing dignity which echoes down the ages…”
The Western Tradition
The Western tradition holds Xerxes to be effeminate, ostentatious, a weakling, intolerant, given to fits of temper, brutal, and craving luxuries. Later in his career, he is simply seen as a weak ruler controlled by women and court eunuchs.
The Western tradition is in accord with the Greek representation of the Persian noble – weak, living a life of luxury and extravagance, manipulated by women. Xenophon and Isocrates write of the degeneracy of the Persian leadership and national character under Xerxes, which they blame on the decline in educational standards.
Xerxes' contribution to Persepolis was also traditionally discredited in the west. The tradition taught that Persepolis was the work of Darius, Xerxes' contribution represented artistic and stylistic copies, or staleness, of motifs.
The Eastern Tradition
The Eastern and Asiatic tradition is much the reverse. On the door jams of the Great Palace at Persepolis, Xerxes is described as “Xerxes, Darius the king’s son, the Achaemenid”. In inscriptions he is referred to as Khshavarsha, which probably means “hero among kings”.
He is depicted overall with much kingly presence and stature, a Persian visionary, a serious monarch, most generous with both friends and enemies, and always practising good sense. It is said that he never acted arbitrarily but from strong principles. This directly contradicts the Western version.
The Greek World: 500BC - 440BC
Ionian Revolt- 499-492 BC
498- Aristagoras (tyrant of Miletus) is given aid from Athens (20 ships) and Eretria (5 ships)
“These ships were the beginning of evils for the Greeks” –Herodotus
Athens supported Aristagoras because Athens was opposed to despotism and Athens’ ex- tyrant Hippias who was trying to gain Persian support to reinstate himself as tyrant in Athens.
Consequences of the Ionian Revolt
The Greeks and Ionians were defeated.
The Persians initiated political and tax reforms in Ionia.
Darius sought revenge on Athens and Eretria.
Darius: “Grant, O God, that I may punish the Athenians” -Herodotus
Mardonius’ Expedition- 492 BC
Darius sent his son- in- law Mardonius on an expedition in 492 BC.
Herodotus says the objective was to subjugate Athens, Eretria and as many other Greek states as possible.
Mardonius’ land force quickly took Thrace and Macedonia.
Mardonius and his fleet were shipwrecked in a storm off Mt Athos.
Herodotus reports that 300 ships and 20 000 men were lost and that there were ‘monsters’ from the sea.
Mardonius returned back to Persia with only the consolidation of Great King’s rule in Thrace and Macedonia.
Preparations for the Second Invasion
Darius prepared for another invasion of Greece by island- hopping the Aegean.
Darius sent a messenger to Greece demanding earth and water.
Many Aegean islands submitted to this demand.
The Persians besieged Eretria and enslaved its people in revenge for the burning of Sardis in the Ionian Revolt.
Advised by Hippias, the Persians chose Marathon, in Attica, as the battle ground.
“the best ground for cavalry to manoeuvre in” –Herodotus
Miltiades was one of the ten Athenian generals.
The generals were divided on whether to fight at Marathon but Miltiades persuaded the Polemarch Callimachus to support his push for the battle.
Pheidippides sent to Sparta for help but the Spartans were delayed by a religious festival.
Battle of Marathon- 490 BC
The Athenians were joined by 1 000 Plataeans.
The Greek army waited until Miltiades’ day of command for battle.
The Greeks ran to reduce the effect of the Persian archers.
“they were the first Greeks… to charge at a run, and the first who dared to look without flinching at Persian dress and the men who wore it” –Herodotus
The Greek flanks were strengthened as this was where the weaker Persians were.
The Persians broke through the middle but the Greeks swamped them from the sides.
6 400 Persians and 192 Greeks died (Herodotus 6:117).
The Athenian dead were cremated in the Soros mound.
The Persians fled and escaped by sea, to head for an assault on Athens.
When the Persians were in sight of Athens they saw the Athenian infantry waiting, having just run 40 km from Marathon, and so they turned for Asia.
3 000 Spartans arrived late, surveyed the battle site, the Persians and their armour and weaponry, then congratulated the Athenians and turned for home.
“After the slaughter at Marathon, the already high reputation of Miltiades was greatly increased” –Herodotus
Athenian victory meant Athens was no longer under the tyranny of Hippias.
Victory was a great boost for Athenian democracy.
Archaeological evidence for the Battle of Marathon
Soros Mound (excavations in 1890 revealed bones, ashes, sacrificed animals and funeral vessels)
Corinthian Bronze Hoplite Helmet “Miltiades dedicated me”
Fragment of monument in Athens commemorating victory at Marathon “The valour of these men will shine as a light, imperishable forever”
Reasons for Greek victory at Marathon
Leadership and Strategy
Callimachus listened to Miltiades advice to fight at Marathon
Miltiades took advantage of the absence of Persian cavalry
Miltiades ordered the hoplites to run at the archers
Miltiades knew to strengthen the flanks
Miltiades understood Persian tactics and knew their weaknesses
Persian escape was difficult as they were confined between the hills and the marshes and their ships were offshore
Balcer - The Persians were disorganised and lacked supplies
Superiority of Greek Hoplites
The Greeks were disciplined, had a specific and unique formation, and worked as a team, unlike the Persians
The Greeks were packed into dense ranks called a phalanx
The Greeks had superior armoury- bronze helmets and breastplates (cuirass), a shield (hoplon), a spear, greaves and a short stabbing sword.
The Persians had limited armour- a spear and a shield.
Darius’ defeat at Marathon made him more determined to punish Athens. For three years, he gathered another great army and navy to conquer Greece. Persian plans halted during the Egyptian revolt in 486 BC. Darius died in 485 and was succeeded by Xerxes, who had connections with Demaratus, disposed king of Sparta. Xerxes was persuaded by Madonius that his destiny was to destroy the Greeks.
Herodotus- Xerxes’ army was 5 283 320 from 46 nations with a navy over 3 000 ships, however modern scholars believe it was no more than 800
Mardonius comments on Greek disunity in Herodotus: “they declare war on each other” “they all talk the same language, they ought to be able to find a better way to settle their differences”
The Interwar Period
There followed a ten year interwar period in Athens
Growth of Athenian democracy
Themistocles builds Athenian navy
Defence of Greece prepared by Athens
Athens punished any medising city- states
Themistocles was born in 524 BC and died in 459 BC and was part of the Pesistratid family of tyrants
He rose to political prominence in 493 as archon with no political backing
He persuaded the Athenian assembly to use the silver from Laurium (484) to upgrade the Athenian navy (to 200 triremes, according to Herodotus, or 100 triremes according to Plutarch). He interpreted the Delphic Oracle’s “wooden wall” as the Athenian navy
Themistocles realised that he would never be able to convince Athens to build his navy if he used Persia as the main enemy so he explotied Athens war with Aegina.
“he continued to draw on the Athenians little by little and turn their thoughts in the direction of the sea” –Plutarch
Athens became a maritime power
Aristides opposed Themistocles, fearing that more ships would enhance the political power of the thetes
Themistocles engineered the ostracism of Aristides in 483 BC
Themistocles fortified the port of Piraeus, a more protected harbour than Phalerum
“generally regarded as the man most directly responsible for saving Greece” Plutarch
“most foresighted statesman of his time” –Thucydides
Aristides and Cimon began to build up an alliance against Themistocles
Themistocles was ostracised in 476 BC
The Congress at the Isthmus
In 481 BC, at the Congress of the Isthmus, the Hellenic League was formed between 31 Greek states (the Serpent Column at Delphi lists all these states)
The formation of the Hellenic League meant unity for the Greek states
Athens and Aegina settled a 30 year dispute
An oath was made to punish medising city- states
Athens accepted the Spartan Leonidas as Commander of the allied army and Eurybiades as Commander of the allied fleet, despite being the naval power herself
The influence of Themistocles is apparent in the naval strategy of future battles
Xerxes began advancing with the Persian army and navy, both hugging the coast
There was disagreement as to where to meet the Persians. The Spartans wanted to fallback to the Isthmus, but Themistocles convinced them to send a force of hoplites to meet them further north
Battle of Thermopylae 480 BC
17- 19th September
Themistocles persuaded the Assembly to evacuate Athens
Leonidas and 7 000 soldiers held a position at the narrowest part of the Thermopylae pass- 15 m wide
Upon being informed of the mountain pass, Leonidas sent 1 000 Phocians to guard it
Xerxes’ army was unsuccessful against the Greeks for two days
Ephialtes informed Xerxes of the mountain pass, looking for a “rich reward” –Herodotus
The Persians followed the mountain pass and killed the Phocians
Persian deserters informed Leonidas of the approaching Persians
Leonidas sent 2 600 men back south, remaining with the Athenians, 300 Spartans and 1 100 Boetians
An Oracle told Leonidas and the Spartans to stand firm
The Greeks fought courageously but were encircled and defeated. Leonidas was killed.
This battle at Thermopylae meant that the Persian navy was delayed because they were reliant upon the army for resources
Cities of Vesuvius: Pompeii and Herculaneum
The Physical Environment: The Geographical Setting, Natural Features and Resources of Pompeii & Herculaneum
Mount Vesuvius is located on the Bay of Naples in the region of Campania. The volcano meant that the region and surrounding towns had extremely fertile soil. Farmlands would produce wheat, barley, cabbages, broad-beans, chickpeas, dates, figs and olives. Sheep and goats were grazed in great numbers.
Pompeii:
Located approximately 9km from Vesuvius.
Had a population of around 20 000 at the time of the eruption, the area measuring 67ha.
The main street, the Via dell Abbondanza was the main commercial road, as shown by the deep wheel grooves.
A very commercial town, the main industries included the busy seaport, resorts for tourists, cloth making and dyeing.
Exports included olive oil, wine, garum (fermented fish sauce) and woollen goods.
Herculaneum:
Located approximately 7km from Vesuvius.
Had a population of arounf 5000 at the time of the eruption, and area measuring 22ha.
Main street = Decumanus Maximus.
The main industry was fishing, however the town was much less commercial than Pompeii.
Misenum:
Located approximately 30km from Vesuvius.
This is where Pliny the Younger was during the eruption.
Stabiae:
Located approximately 5km from Vesuvius.
This is where Pliny the Elder was located during the eruption. He died on the beach.
Both Pompeii & Herculanuem had a forum, basilica, temples, amphitheatres, palaestras, theatres, tombs, thermae and macellum. They were divided into insulae (city blocks with 1-12 dwellings)
Who were the early settlers? According to legend, Herculaneum was founded by Herucles, the Greek Hero and so took his name. Historians think this means that it was settled by Greek traders in the 6th century BC. These people came from either Cumae, or Parthenope (Naples).
What were the main geographical features and resources? The region of Campania had a mild climate and a fantastic views, many prominent figures built villas in the area and used them as get-aways from the hustle and bustle of city life. The area is typically known for its Mediterranean produce including: olives, wine and fish. Cities like Pompeii were also known to export woollen goods, fruits, vegetables and textiles.
Plans & Streetscapes of Pompeii & Herculaneum
The streetscapes of 'Pompeii' and 'Herculaneum' show distinct Greek influences through the use of the grid system:
Main axial roads – 'Decumani'
Minor roads – 'Cardini'
Blocks – 'Insulae'
Both cities contained a Roman style forum where all public buildings (administration, religion, commerce) were centred around – It was the chief meeting and trading place of the citizens.
The Range of Available Sources
Limitations, Reliability & Evaluation of Sources
Written Sources:
Refer to the Campania region in general and not Pompeii & Herculaneum specifically.
There is no actual written account from Pompeii or Herculaneum.
Pliny the Younger:
Was only 17/18 years old at the time.
He was not actually at Pompeii & Herculaneum during the eruption - he was at Misenum 30km away.
He wrote his account to Tacitus 20 years after the eruption
His aim in writing was to record Pliny the Elder's death so his memory lived on.
He didn't even consider the event "worthy of serious history".
Other sources:
Were written many years after the eruption
Relied on Pliny the Younger's letters, which had limitations and flaws themselves.
Limitations:
Significant 'gaps' - there is a lack of evidence about everyday life.
Little of Herculaneum has been uncovered so far; it lay beneath 20metres of volcanic rock and a modern city.
Changing interpretations (technology, methodologies)
Archaeological Sources:
Until the 1980's there was no systematic examination of stratigraphy
Initially, those digging just tried to remove layers to get to the ground, discarding anything along the way.
Few conservation processes were implemented until recently.
Many skeletons were removed or remains manipulated.
Reconstruction, bombings during WWII and earthquakes caused great
Evidence Provided by the Sources from Pompeii & Herculaneum
The Eruption
The Economy: Trade, Commerce, Industries, Occupations
Social Structure: Men, Women, Freedmen, Slaves
Local Political Life
Everyday Life: Leisure Activities, Food & Dining, Clothing, Health, Baths, Water Supply, Sanitation
Public Buildings: Basilicas, Temples, Fora, Theatres, Palaestra, Amphitheatres
Private Buildings: Villas, Houses, Shops
Influence of Greek & Egyptian Cultures: Art, Architecture, Religion
Religion: Temples, Household Gods, Foreign Cults, Tombs.
Spartan Society: The Battle of Leuctra
Geographical setting:
Natural features
West of Sparta was the Taygetus mountain range, and to the east was the Parnon mountain range. To the north was the Arcadian mountain range. Combined, these mountains were a natural protective barrier around Sparta that isolated it from the rest of Greece. Gytheion was the main Spartan harbour.
Social structure and political organisation:
‘The Great Rhetra’
Spartan Constitution, compiled by Lycurgus. Oracle of Delphi, constitution in verse.
Roles and privileges of the Kings
Zeos Sparta and Zeos Uranios - the right of making war against whatsoever land they please, and that no man of the Spartans shall hinder this right, or if he do, he shall be subject to the curse; and that when they go on expeditions the kings shall go out first and return last; that a hundred picked men shall be their guard upon expeditions; and that they shall use in their goings forth to war as many cattle as they desire, and take both the hides and the backs of all that are sacrificed. These are their privileges in war, and in peace moreover things have been assigned to them as follows: if any sacrifice is performed at the public charge, it is the privilege of the kings to sit down to the feast before all other, and that the attendants shall begin with them first, and serve to each of them a portion of everything double of that which is given to the other guests, and that they shall have the first pouring of libations and the hides of the animals slain in sacrifice; that on every new moon and seventh day of the month there shall be delivered at the public charge to each one of these a full-grown victim in the temple of Apollo, and a measure of barley-groats and a Spartan "quarter" of wine; and at all the games they shall have seats of honor specially set apart for them.
The government e.g. ephorate, gerousia and ekklesia
Ephorate - One of a body of five elected magistrates exercising a supervisory power over the kings of Sparta. Leaders of ancient Sparta and shared power with the Spartan kings. Five ephors were elected annually, who "swore on behalf of the city", while the kings swore for themselves. The ephors were elected by the popular assembly, and all citizens were eligible for election. They were forbidden to be reelected. They provided a balance for the two kings, who rarely cooperated with each other. The ephors did not have to kneel down before the Kings of Sparta and were held in high esteem by the citizens, because of the importance of their powers and because of the holy role they earned throughout their functions.
Gerousia - Spartan council of elders. This governmental body is a gerontocracy that was made up of 28 60-year-old Spartan males and the two Kings. The Gerousia prepared motions or rhetrai ("rhetra") for the wider citizen assembly, the Apella, to vote on. The Gerousia could also veto motions passed by the Apella and was consulted by the ephors in matters of interpretation of the law. Additionally, the Gerousia filled the role of a supreme court. It could try murder cases — and had the power to condemn, fine, or banish. It could even try the kings for any alleged crime. As a Supreme Court, it had the ultimate say as to what was or was not lawful. In effect, it was the supreme institution in the Spartan constitution, and could override any decision by any other organ in the Spartan political system.
Ecclesia - Principal assembly of the democracy of ancient Athens during its "Golden Age" (480–404 BCE). It was the popular assembly, open to all male citizens with 2 years of military service.The assembly was responsible for declaring war, military strategy and electing the strategoi and other officials. It was responsible for nominating and electing magistrates, thus indirectly electing the members of the Areopagus. It had the final say on legislation and the right to call magistrates to account after their year of office. Votes were taken by a show of hands.
Social structure e.g. Spartiates, perioeci, ‘inferiors’ and helots
Spartiates - Those who could trace their ancestry back to the original, or first inhabitants of the city. they enjoyed all of the political and legal rights of the state. They were also the only ones who could participate in politics. They served in the military, led the military and ran Sparta.
Perioeci - Foreigners that divided the Spartiate and helots. Due to this primary function, they had many rights and could own land. Although they had to pay taxes, life was swell for the peroeci. The perioeci also had the right to learn how to read and write. They served in the military, as everyone else did, and were in charge of the trade and communication with Sparta's neighbors.
Helots - Disliked by the Spartans. The helots came from what the Spartans call Helos. Helos was south of Sparta, but due to Sparta's growing population, Sparta began to expand its territory when they came to a village (Helos). They invaded this village, killed its inhabitants and took some as prisoners. The helots were used as slaves, but were able to earn their freedom by joining the military. Even if they earned their freedom, they were still treated like dirty helots. A few times each year it became legal in Sparta to kill any helot, even if they were free.
Role of the Spartan army
Territorial control and security.
External:
- Assisted in treated with all Peloponnesian states except Argos and Achaea.
- Guraranteed aid to members of the Peloponnesian League.
Internal:
- Helot Revolts (Prevention and Suppression).
Control of the helots e.g. the military, syssitia and krypteia
Sparta embarked on the conquest of the neighboring state Messenia. This acquisition of a large piece of territory and a large conquered population seems to have both provided the basis for the system of helotage and required the existence of a large military force to keep the potentially rebellious Messenians under control.The Spartiates thus became a permanently armed master class, living off the labour of the helots and preventing rebellion through constant vigilance. To maintain the social system of the city, it was necessary to have a force ready to oppose any uprising of the helots (an event which occurred several times in the classical period).
Syssitia - Syssitia promotes unity within the Spartan warrior ranks, so they would have more morale to fight in the Wars against the helots. This is linked to the fact that the dominant military strategy at the time was the 'hoplite' formation where unity among troops were so important.
Krypteia - Krypteia members stalked the helot villages and surrounding countryside, spying on the servile population. Their mission was to root-out potential sedition. Troublesome helots could be summarily executed. Such brutal oppression of the helots permitted the Spartans to control the agrarian population and devote themselves to military practice. It may also have contributed to the Spartans' reputation for stealth since a boy who got caught was punished by whipping.
The educational system e.g. the agoge
Rigorous education and training regimen mandated for all male Spartan citizens, except for the firstborn son in the ruling houses, Eurypontid and Agiad. The training involved learning stealth, cultivating loyalty to the Spartan group, military training (e.g. pain tolerance), hunting, dancing, singing and social (communicating) preparation.[1] The word "agoge" meant in ancient Greek, rearing, but in this context generally meant leading, guidance or training.
The role and status of women e.g. land ownership, inheritance and education
They controlled their own properties, as well as the properties of male relatives who were away with the army. It is estimated that women were the sole owners of at least 35% of all land and property in Sparta. The laws regarding a divorce were the same for both men and women. Unlike women in Athens, if a Spartan woman became the heiress of her father because she had no living brothers to inherit (an epikleros), the woman was not required to divorce her current spouse in order to marry her nearest paternal relative. partan women received as much education as men, as well as a substantial amount of physical education and gymnastic training. They rarely married before the age of 20, and unlike Athenian women who wore heavy, concealing clothes and were rarely seen outside the house, Spartan women wore short dresses and went where they pleased. It was possible for them to appear entirely nude even publicly, which they did customarily only at festivals, as did the men. Many women played a significant role in the history of Sparta. Gorgo, Queen of Sparta, heiress to the throne and the wife of Leonidas I, was very powerful within the government and, as Herodotus records, famously assisted both her father, Cleomenes, in resisting a bribe and later was responsible for Sparta decoding the warning the Persian forces were about to invade Greece when, after Spartan generals could not decode a wooden tablet covered in wax, she ordered them to clear the wax, revealing the warning. She played an important role at war time.[35] When asked by a woman from Attica why Spartan women were the only women in the world who could rule men, she stated, famously, it was because only Spartan women give birth to real men.
Economy
Land ownership e.g. agriculture, kleroi and helots
Kleros: an allotment of land given to each newborn Spartan boy.
"Lycurgus' second, and most revolutionary, reform was his redistribution of the land. For there was dreadful inequality: many destitute people without means were congregating in the city, while wealth had poured completely into just a few hands. In order to expel arrogance, envy, crime, luxury and those yet older and more serious political afflictions, wealth and poverty, Lycurgus persuaded the citizens to pool all the land and then redistribute it afresh. Then they would all live on equal terms with one another, with the same amount of property to support each, and they would seek to be first only in merit. There would be no distinction or inequality between individuals except for what censure of bad conduct or praise of good would determine.” - Plutarch (Life of Lycurgus 8)
Technology e.g. weapons, armour and pottery
A Spartan hoplite (footsoldier) wielded a pike of seven and a half to nine feet in length, donned a helmet, breastplate, and greaves and carried a short sword at his waist. The sword used by the hoplites (=soldiers), who formed the undefeated main phalanx of the Spartan army, the short sword, was ideal for close combat and extemely lethal in the hands of the trained Spartans. He held so large a shield that it could be used as a stretcher to carry wounded from the field. This shield protected its bearer's left side and front, and extended far leftward to protect his neighbor's right side.
The sword was used by the officers (lochagoi) of the famous Spartan infantry for close combat at battles like Thermopylae and Plataies.
Economic roles of the periokoi and helots
Periokoi - Most without land ownership so they turned to industry and trade/ commerce, especially in woollen goods and iron work; they had a monopoly of trade; they generally were well off despite taxes to Spartiati.
Helots - Helots provided the Spartans with a workforce which would free them for public service.
Economic exchange e.g. iron bars, trade
Spartans did not trade with anyone due to the fact that outsiders were not allowed inside their city-states. Also, insiders were not allowed out.
Religion, Death and Burial
Gods and Goddesses e.g. Artemis, Poseidon and Apollo
"[In Sparta] is the tomb of Tainaros, after whom they say the headland was named that juts out into the sea. Here are sanctuaries of Poseidon Hippokourios (Horse-tending) and of Artemis Aiginaia (Goat-goddess)." - Pausanias, (Description of Greece)
Artemis - Also known as Aeginaea. Goddess of the wilderness, the hunt and wild animals, and fertility. Festival of Artemis Orthia, held at Sparta, when young Spartan boys would try to steal cheeses from the altar. As they tried they would be whipped, the meaning of Orthia and the nature of the ritual whipping has been lost and there is no logical explanation or translation.
Poseidon - Poseidon (a.k.a Neptune)is equal in power to his brother, Zeus. He is the God of the Seas, rivers, winds, floods and drought, earthquakes, storms, weather and tempests and also ruler of Atlantis. According to Pausanias, Poseidon was one of the caretakers of the oracle at Delphi before Olympian Apollo took it over. Apollo and Poseidon worked closely in many realms: in colonization, for example, Delphic Apollo provided the authorization to go out and settle, while Poseidon watched over the colonists on their way, and provided the lustral water for the foundation-sacrifice. Xenophon's Anabasis describes a group of Spartan soldiers in 400–399 BC singing to Poseidon a paean—a kind of hymn normally sung for Apollo.
Apollo - Apollo is a god of light and the sun, truth and prophecy, healing, plague, music, poetry, and more. Apollo is the nephew of Poseidon and Artemis’ twin brother. Carnea was the name of one of the great national festivals of Sparta, held in honour of Apollo Carneus. The chief centre of his worship was Sparta, where the Carnea took place every year from the 7th to the 15th of the month Carneus. During this period all military operations were suspended.
Festivals e.g. Hyakinthia, Gymnopaedia and Karneia
Hyakinthia - The Hyacinthia lasted three days. Their details have been passed down to us through the descriptions in Athenaeus and Didymus[disambiguation needed]. The first day was given over to mourning for the death of the hero: sacrifices were offered to the dead, banquests were stark and without pomp or decoration, the sacrificial breads were very plain.
The second day was one of celebration for his rebirth. The young people played the cithara and the aulos, and sang of the glory of Apollo. Others participated in horse races. Numerous choirs competed in town, singing country songs and dancing. Amyclae was also the location of parades of carts decorated by the girls and women of Sparta. Numerous sacrifices were offered, exclusively goats, with the occasion of the κοπίς, kopis, banquets where the citizens invited their friends and relatives. The helots had the right to participate in the celebrations, as did any foreigners: "they treat not only their countrymen, but any foreigners who happen by" (Athenaeus, IV, 138F). The kopis took place under special tents known as σκηναί (skēnaí), a characteristic trait of ancient country festivals.
The third day is not described in detail, it is possible that it was more solemn, or that mysteries were held. It is also known that for this holiday, the Spartan women wove a chiton (χιτών / chitōn, or "tunic") which is then offered to the god — a tradition similar to the peplos offered to Athena at Athens upon the occasion of the Panathenaic Games.
The Hyacinthia was a major Spartan holiday. Xenophon, in the Hellenics IV, 5, 11, reports that the Spartans interrupted their campaigns in order to be able to return to Laconia so as to participate.Pausanias writes that they even negotiated a truce especially for this purpose. According to Thucydides, upon the peace of Nicias, Athens, in order to prove its good will towards Sparta, promised to assist at the celebrations.
Gymnopaedia - The Gymnopaedia, in ancient Sparta, was a yearly celebration during which naked youths displayed their athletic and martial skills through the medium of war dancing. The custom was introduced in 668 BC, concurrently with the introduction of naked athletics, oiling the body for exercise so as to highlight its beauty.
Carneia - Five unmarried youths (Καρνεᾶται) were chosen by lot from each [tribe] for four years, to superintend the proceedings, the officiating priest being called ἀγητής ("leader"). A man decked with garlands (possibly the priest himself) started running, pursued by a band of young men called σταφυλοδρόμοι ("running with bunches of grapes in their hands"); if he was caught, it was a guarantee of good fortune to the city; if not, the reverse.
In the second part of the festival nine tents were set up in the country, in each of which nine citizens, representing the phratries (or obae), feasted together in honour of the god (for huts or booths extemporized as shelters; see W. Warde Fowler in Classical Review, March 1908, on the country festival in Tibullus ii. I). According to Demetrius of Scepsis (in Athenaeus iv. 141), the Carnea was an imitation of life in camp, and everything was done in accordance with the command of a herald. In regard to the sacrifice, which doubtless formed part of the ceremonial, all that is known is that a ram was sacrificed at Thurii. Other indications point to the festival having assumed a military character at an early date, as might have been expected among the warlike Dorians, although some scholars deny this. The general meaning of the agrarian ceremony is clear, and has numerous parallels in north European harvest-customs, in which an animal (or man disguised as an animal) was pursued by the reapers, the animal if caught being usually killed; in any case, both the man and the animal represent the vegetation spirit. E. H. Binney in Classical Review (March 1905) suggests that the story of Alcestis was performed at the Carnea (to which it may have become attached with the name of Apollo) as a vegetation drama, and "embodied a Death and Resurrection ceremony."
Funeral customs and rituals
Spartans were encouraged to view death as a normal part of life – so they would give their lives for the state. • Burials within the city – encourage not to fear death • Were given graves / tombs only if died in battle (male) or in childbirth (female) or were buried in simple pits. • Soldiers were buried wrapped in their red cloaks with olive leaves placed around • Warriors could be buried on the battlefield with grave markers ‘in war’ placed to identify the body. Funerary rituals were conducted by female relatives and included: – Laying out the body – Funeral procession – The Burial • Grave goods/offerings were not placed in graves • A strict period of mourning was enforced - 11 days - and the 12th day was marked by a sacrifice to Demeter and the end of grieving. Spartan king burials were dealt with differently. • Herodotus is our main source in investigating the death and burial of a king. He states that kings received elaborate burial rituals in keeping with their divine origins and religious significance ‘Spartans held their kings as demi-gods, worthy of a hero’s funeral.’
Cultural Life
Architecture e.g. Amyklaion, Menelaion and the Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia
Amyklaion - The Acropolis of Amyklai and the Temenos of the Sanctuary of Apollo and Hyakinthos. Preserved at the site are the retaining wall, circuit walls and traces of foundations dating to various periods, and a circular altar. The Throne of Apollo Amyklaios. Stoa-like building or altar, which surrounded on three sides the colossal column-shaped statue of the god. It was decorated with relief representations and plastic compositions. The tomb-altar of the local god or hero Hyakinthos was used as the pedestal of the statue. Architectural parts of a composite style, both Doric and Ionic, are exhibited in the Sparta Museum. It is an exquisite work of Bathykles, an artist from Magnesia of Asia Minor, dated to the Archaic period.
Menelaion - There is an important Mycenaean site known as the Menelaion which lies some distance outside Sparta on the other side of the river on the eastern side, the opposite side to Mount Taygetus. Indeed most of the dramatic photos of Sparta with Taygetus in the background are taken from the Menelaion. The most dramatic part of the Menelaion is a rectangular foundation that was a heroon, that is a shrine to a hero, in this case Menelaus, the King of Sparta. It was originally constructed in the eighth century BC that is probably five centuries after the presumed date of the Trojan War. Numerous lead placards have been found there, many of them dedicated to Menelaus which gives proof of what it was. In its present form it is a rebuild of the fifth century BC, constructed of fine ashlar masonry.
Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia - The sanctuary is located in a natural basin between Limnai and the west bank of the Eurotas River, outside ancient Sparta, above the reach of all but the severest flooding. The oldest relics, potteryfragments from the late Greek Dark Ages, indicate that the cult has probably existed since the 10th century BCE, but not before (Rose in Dawkins 1929:399).[3] Originally, the cult celebrated its rituals on a rectangular earthen altar, built up by the ashes of successive sacrifices. At the very beginning of the 8th century BCE, the temenos was paved with river stones and surrounded by a trapezoidal wall. A wood and stone altar was then built as well as a temple. The works were financed by the wars waged by Sparta.
A second temple was built in 570 BCE, during the joint reign of Leo of Sparta and Agasicles as military successes provided funds. The terrain was raised and consolidated, undoubtedly following erosion caused by the Evrotas. An altar and a temple of limestone, oriented the same way as the previous buildings, were built on a bed of river sand. The surrounding wall was also enlarged, and at this stage took on a rectangular form. The second temple was entirely rebuilt in the 2nd century BCE, except for the altar, which was replaced in its turn in the 3rd century CE when the Romans built an amphitheatre to welcome tourists to the diamastigosis (see below); its concrete preserved many fragments and inscriptions of the earlier structures.
Everyday Life
Daily life and leisure
Athletics, cock and boar fighting, hunting, banqueting, horse racing and equestrian sports.
Food and clothing
Food - In Ancient Spartan society food was incredibly basic consisting of mainly barley, cheese, fish, some meats and wine. However, meat, especially red meats were quite rare. But sources have found that Spartans ate pork, poultry and fish. Though according to archaeological sources (picture), hunting was very much apart of society and common game meat were wild boar, venison and hare. Sparta was most known for it’s black broth, which included pork, vinegar and blood. Greek States however, considered the Spartan diet to be strange and unappetising. The helots grew food for all of Sparta, including the military messes as the syssitia ensured that all Spartiates ate the same food. Spartiate boys also were encouraged to steal food; this was considered good practice and training for life in the army. Bread made of wheat was rare and was only consumed on special occasions. Barley was a staple food source and was used as a substitute to make bread as well as porridge. Other food sources were honey from local hives, olives and olive oil and cheese made from goat’s milk. A range of fruit was also available to Spartans, as ancient sources have found that figs were a huge contribution to the syssitia.
Clothing - Spartan soldiers wore, Crimson tunics and cloaks, as symbols of wealth and power, helmets, muscular cuirass (breastplate and back plate fastened together) with leather pteruges (leather strip skirt), leg greaves. They carried a spear, and a shield. Women wore wore plain or brightly coloured and patterned chitons, and were short because they did a lot of exercised. They also wore leather sandals. Normal people wore plain or brightly coloured and patterned coloured tunics, with leather sandals. Young Boys Aged 7-12 wore a tunic, the Chilton, wore no shoes and had their hair cut short.
Marriage customs
This spartan Marriage customs was unique as it was not praised in other Greek city states. According to Plutarch Spartan girls was married when 'they were ripe for it' approximately in their late teens when their bodies are fully matured and fertile. It was the law for a Spartan boy to be married about the age of 18 where they were full time warriors. Marriage was by capture, by which a man would choose a bride and carry her off, is thought to have been practiced in Sparta, indicating a lack of choice on the girl’s part. Through Plutarch we have a understanding of the marriage rituals, the bridesmaid took charge in the capture of the girl as she shaved the brides head and clothed her in male garments, and laid her down alone on a mattress in the dark. Then the groom would carry her to the bed after his daily meal from the mess and spend a short time with her, and depart discretely and sleep wherever he usually did along with is fellow soldiers.The husband continued to visit his wife in secret for some time after the marriage.The reasons for cutting the bride’s hair and dressing her in men’s clothing has been widely debated my many modern scholars some theories includes that is is a implication of chastity or a subjection of the bride to her husband and to ease a young bridegroom into unfamiliar sexual intercourse with a woman rather than a man. It is thought that some sort of pre nupitual wedding feast took place among the women only. Special cakes in the shapes of breast were eaten, and a hymn, Alkman's 'Partheneion,' was sung by young girls. Married life for a young spartan bride has been described as a trialed marriage. It is believed that the ceremony were kept a secret until a child was produced. If the wife was barren then a new marriage contract could be arranged. Both Plutarch and Xenophon suggest that the nature of marriage practices and households was designed to make young Spartans of either gender look forward to marriage and the production of children rather than recoil from it or see it as a burden.There was unusual freedom in sexual relationships, according to Plutarch and Xenophon wives were swapped by other men for the purpose of reproducing. Plutarch claims this selective breeding program was advocated by Lykurgus who thought just as the breeding of dogs and horses depended on having the best sires, so also the best human stock should be used to breed for the benefit of the Spartan society.
Occupations
Spartan men: warriors
Spartan women: childbearers
Perioikoi: craftsmen, traders, fishermen
Helots: farmers, domestic duties
The Near East: Xerxes
Historical Context
Geography, topography and resources of the Persian Empire
The huge size of the empire meant that there were great variations in the terrain and resources.These variations had an effect on communications, events and the amount of tribute paid by the different areas. The empire stretched about 1800 kilometres from the Caspian Sea in the north to the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean in the south. It extended about 3600 kilometres from Egypt and the coast of Ionian in the west to the Indus River in the east. The area included many different nationalities: Greeks, Syrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, and Indians.The central part of the empire, where the Persians first settled, is a great plateau at an altitude of between 1000 and 2000 kilometres above sea level, situated between the Caspian Sea in the north and the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman in the south. The empire was rich in resources. Quarries produced metals such as iron, copper, gold, lead and tin, stone for building such as marble and alabaster, and many precious and semi-precious stones. There were many wild animals and birds: lions, bears, hares, goats, and ostriches. The empire produced cereal crops such as barley and wheat, fruit and vines. The Oxus River nearby was also very productive. Forests were exploited for their timber for building purposes. Trade and commerce flourished in times of peace.
Overview of Persian political, social and military structures
The Persian political, social and military structures were all in place when Xerxes became king. The king was at the head of all Persian political, social and military structures.
The Persian king:
- Was an absolute monarch, king of kings
- owned all land and its peoples
- was owed obedience by all subjects
- was expected to be a good leader
- delegated the tasks of ruling to royalty and nobles
- had a special relationship with the god Ahura Mazda
- Was not divine
- was descended from Achaemenes, founder of Persia.
To the Persians, the ideal of Persian manhood was a warrior, one who could ride and shoot arrows. The nucleus of the army consisted of specially picked men, all Persians: the 10 000 Immortals. Custom decreed that all men up to 50 years of age had an obligation to serve their community as royal warriors.
The army consisted of a professional core of Persians and Medes. They manned the garrisons at key points throughout the empire, at river crossings, mountain passes and on routes connecting provincial capitals with frontiers. The officers were Persians (many related to the king) and Medes. Native (local) officers excited but they were junior. Conscripting men for the satrapies could increase the army greatly in times of war.
The Persians themselves were not a maritime power but had naval forces through their acquisition of Phoenicia, Ionia and Egypt. They had a policy of the army and navy being in contact with each other at all times during campaigns. The shops were also used to carry supplies for the army. There were Persian admirals in charge of the fleet, but they had very little experience in naval warfare and were dependent on their native commanders.
Persian kingship:
Religious policy – beliefs, sacrifices, tolerance, or lack of tolerance
Administration of empire
Building program – inscriptions, creations, buildings
Warfare and expansion of empire – of all kings, whether they failed or not
Legitimacy and public image – legitimacy of rule
Darius appears to have begun the worship of Ahura Mazda; Xerxes continued this policy making some important modifications of his own.
Expansion of the Persian empire
The vast empire that Xerxes inherited was the culmination of the work of the first three kings. The empire was established by Xerxes’ grandfather, Cyrus the Great, who had inherited the kingdom of Anshan in about 560BC. He was subject to the Medes in the north. Cyrus defeated Astyages, king of the Medes, in about 550BC and became king of Media as well as Anshan. Cyrus defeated in turn the Lydians, the Ionians, Bactrians, and Babylonians, but was killed fighting the Scythians in 530BC. Cyrus’ son Cambyses conquered Egypt but died on his way back to Persia. Darius I, Xerxes’ father, became king and put down revolts throughout the empire. Darius aimed to conquer Greece. He sent a combined army/navy expedition around northern Greece but the navy was wrecked in a storm. He sent a naval expedition across the Aegean Sea but the Persians were defeated by the Athenians at Marathon. He was preparing for another attempt but died before it was ready.
Overview of religion in the Persian empire
The Persians were very devoted to their religion. According to the prophet Zoroaster, a religious prophet and reformer, who lived in the seventh century BC in Eastern Persia, the god Ahura Mazda created man, light and darkness and all else both material and spiritual. Most important among Ahura Mazda’s creations were two opposing forces: one, representing “Truth”, was called Spenta Mainyu, the Holy Spirit; the other, Angra Mainyu, the Destructive Spirit, included the “Lie”. Both powers were constantly at work on men whose moral responsibility was to choose between them. The god would judge a man after death: if the man had chosen good, he would receive eternal afterlife of ease and prosperity; if evil, his lot would be everlasting torment. The sacred book of the Zoroastrians was the Avesta. Ahura Mazda bestowed the kingship on the Achaemenids and because of this was given prominence in royal inscriptions. The Magi were hereditary priests, probably Median, who worked at interpreting the King’s dreams and made prophecies. They made sacrifices and accompanied the army on campaigns. Rituals are not clear but sacred fires were maintained in special buildings usually constructed as towers. The Persian kings tolerated other religions in the empire, probably for political reasons. Foreign gods were worshipped in Egypt, Babylon and other areas on the king’s behalf. Payments to foreign gods are also recorded.
Background and rise to prominence
Family background and status
Xerxes was born a prince in the royal court and would have had all the respect and prestige associated with his position. Xerxes was not the eldest son of King Darius I. Darius had three older sons by another wife while he was still a commoner. After he became king, Darius married Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great. Xerxes was the eldest son of this marriage. Xerxes was the son of a king, grandson of the founder of the empire and the son with the most royal blood. Xerxes had possibly been viceroy or governor of Babylon for 12 years and, if so, this would have given him good experience in government and administration. Herodotus recorded that Persian males were educated between the ages of five and twenty, and that they were taught “to ride, to use the bow and to speak the truth” (The Histories; Herodotus; trans. by A. de Selincourt; p. 98)
The following is an extract from a text inscribed by Xerxes’ father, Darius, on his tomb at Naqsh-i Rustam: “Trained am I both with hands and feet. As a horseman I am a good horseman. As bowman I am a good bowman both afoot and on horseback. As a spearman I am a good spearman both afoot and on horseback.” (Old Persian; R.G Kent; p. 140)
Some scholars have suggested that Xerxes shared a co-regency with his father in the last eleven years of Darius’ reign. This is based on a Persepolis inscription in which Xerxes is said to have become king after Darius ‘left the throne’. Darius, then, may have stepped aside in favour of his son. Another version of this same text, in the Akkadian language uses the term ‘he went to his fate’. This, according to M.A Dandamaev, indicates that Darius died before Xerxes’ accession, thus excluding the possibility of a co-regency. Xerxes was the eldest grandson of Cyrus the Great, and the son of Darius and Atossa, Cyrus’ daughter.
Succession to kingship
The succession of Xerxes to the Persian throne after the death of his father Darius, appears to have gone smoothly. There was no challenge to the throne unlike that to latter kings. Darius’ eldest son was Artabazanes, who was born before his father was king, by a commoner wife. Xerxes was born after his father’s accession to the throne. His mother Atossa was the daughter of Cyrus the Great. Sometime after 498BC, Xerxes appears to have become his father’s representative in Babylon. Xerxes also appears in reliefs at Persepolis behind his father Darius. According to Ctesias, Xerxes’ brother Ariamenes, satrap of Bactria, contested the throne but was won over by gifts and the promise that he would be second in the kingdom after Xerxes. Ariamenes crowned the new King and remained loyal, dying a hero at Salamis. Herodotus gives a different version: a violent quarrel broke out between Darius’ sons over the succession. A deposed Spartan king named Demeratus told Darius that in Sparta the custom was for the son born after his father became king to become king himself. Darius proclaimed Xerxes heir. Herodotus believed that Xerxes would have become king anyway, ‘because of the immense influence of Atossa’. An inscription dating to the beginning of Xerxes’ reign alludes to his power struggle: “Other sons of Darius there were – thus unto Ahura Mazda was the desire – Darius my father made me the greatest after himself”.
J.M Cook points out that Xerxes had a stronger claim than his brother because his mother, Atossa, was the daughter of Cyrus the Great. (The Persian Empire; J.M Cook; p. 74) An inscription from Xerxes’ reign clearly shows that he was proud of his Achaemenid ancestry. Like Darius, he claimed the divine sanction of Ahura Mazda for his reign. “A great god is Ahura Mazda…who made Xerxes king, one king of many…I am Xerxes, the great king…song of Darius the king, an Achaemenid, a Persian…by the favour of Ahura Mazda…” (History of the Persian Empire; A.T Olmstead; p. 231)
Career
Administration of the Persian empire
The empire was a hereditary monarchy (king who inherited the throne from his father). The descendants of Achaemenes, the Achaemenids, formed the royal dynasty and ruled by the grace of Ahura Mazda. The Great King was not a god, but an absolute monarch, administering the realm from his palaces. The king had considerable assistance in administering the empire. High officials were appointed form the royal family and nobles as they were more likely to be loyal to the king. The empire was divided into administrative areas called satrapies. When Xerxes became king there were over 20, each ruled by a satrap responsible to the king. The king also appointed a satrap’s secretary and commander of the garrison. The satrap collected tribute, raised military levies, dispensed justice, administered the economy and minted silver coinage. The law was administered locally with a right of appeal to the satrap or even the Great king himself, assisted by a panel of royal judges who formed a High Court and held office for life. Wherever possible, the Persian rulers tried to keep local institutions in each new area to prevent disruption.
Revolts in the empire: Egypt, Babylon
1. Egypt:
Given encouragement by the Persian defeat at Marathon, Egypt rebelled in 486BC in protest against a rise in taxes designed to finance the invasion of Greece, against the corruption of the Persian administration and against the policy of skilled workers begin taken to work as labourers on building projects. Darius died before he could put down the revolt. Xerxes may have gone to Egypt himself. By 484BC, the revolt had been suppressed. Property of many temples was confiscated and the treatment of the people became harsher. Xerxes’ brother Achaemenes was appointed as satrap. Xerxes broke with the tradition of posing as native ruler and built no temples. He became an unpopular king in Egypt. Shortly before the death of Darius, the satrapy of Egypt rose in revolt, apparently as a protest against the heavy taxes imposed by the Persians. Xerxes was left to deal with this protest, which he ruthlessly suppressed. He showed Egypt no mercy. Previously Cyrus, Cambyses and Darius had adopted Egyptian pharaonic titles but Xerxes did not. He appears to have authorised no buildings in Egypt, and Egyptian officials filled only the lowest positions in administration. Also, Xerxes confiscated temple lands, earning him the hatred of Egyptian priests. He then appointed his brother Achaemenes to replace the satrap Pherendates, who had apparently been killed during the revolt.
2. Babylon
Two revolts in Babylon occurred: one in 484BC and the other in 482BC when the satrap Zopyrus was killed. The Babylonians were discontented because of taxation, the loss of skilled workers and the upkeep of the Persian court and garrison there. Xerxes sent his brother-in-law Megabyzus to crush the revolt. Babylon was severely punished: the fortifications were torn down, the leaders were executed and their land was given to Persian nobles. A minor gold statue from the temple of Bel Marduk was taken, a priest who objected to this was killed, the Euphrates River was diverted to divide the city and taxation remained high. Xerxes seems to have dropped the title of “King of Babylon” from his official titles. The satrapy of “Babylon and the Lands Beyond the River” lost its identity by being divided into two smaller satrapies, reducing Babylon’s political status. Babylon does not seem to have suffered economically after the revolt. The Babylonians seemed to have resented the heavy taxation imposed by Xerxes and the forced removal of labourers to work on his monuments. When Babylon revolted for the second, and last time, Xerxes was not so lenient. Among the punishments inflicted on the Babylonians was the destruction of the fortifications of Babylon, the execution of some priests, the infliction of damage on major religious sanctuaries and the confiscation and removal to Persepolis of valuable religious property. Babylon lost its former political significance as a special province of the Achaemenid empire and was absorbed into the new satrapy of Assyria.
Foreign policy: role in invasion of the Greek mainland
Xerxes inherited his father’s plan to add Greece to the Persian empire, to take revenge on Athens for the help they had given the Ionains during the Ionian Revolt and for the defeat inflicted on the Persians at the Battle of Marathon in 490BC. Until 483BC, revolts and internal problems had delayed Xerxes’ plans for invasion.
Internal pressure
There was significant pressure within Persia for Xerxes to invade Greece. For example, as told by Herotodus, there was a lot of pressure from Mardonius, Xerxes’ brother-in-law who wanted to be governor of Greece. European Greece would have been a profitable addition to the empire, certainly, but at the centre of Xerxes’ decision there must have been the feeling that he was honour bound to attack the Athenians since his father had failed to punish them.
Reasons for the attack on Greece
It is believed that Xerxes was greatly influenced by his cousin Mardonius, who was ambitious to become the satrap of newly conquered territory. He urged Xerxes to carry out Darius’ plan to attack Greece. Queen Atossa was a very ambitious woman who also urged Xerxes to attack Greece, as she wanted her son to be acclaimed a worthy successor to Darius. She wanted to see the boundaries of the empire extended. Xerxes himself wanted to acquire new territory and to be seen as a worthy successor to Darius. :Only Xerxes’ uncle Artabanus felt that the enterprise was too ambitious and feared defeat for the Persians. Xerxes received envoys from Thessaly promising aid, and the exiled family from Athens, the Peisistraditids, was willing to help Persia. Since the attack by Darius across the Aegean Sea had failed, Xerxes decided to invade Greece from the north. The army was to be supported by the fleet.
Evaluation
Impact and influence on his time
Xerxes ruled the Persian empire for 21 years. His impact on the Persian world was mainly in the field of architecture. His impact on the Greek world was enormous, providing the writers of the fifth century BC with a great deal of literary material and the opportunity to boast for centuries. A century and a half later, Philip and Alexander of Macedon set about redressing the wrongs done to the Greeks during the so-called Persian wars.
Impact on Persia
Defeat by the Greeks damaged Xerxes’ prestige in the eyes of the Greeks of the Persian empire. The defeat showed that the Persians could be beaten in battle even when they had a huge army. The defeat did not affect the empire. There were no major revolts during the remainder of Xerxes’ reign. The Persians had carried out their main aim – to punish Athens. The Persians lost a small amount of territory in Ionia.
Impact on Greece
The victories of Greece increased Greek pride. The campaign became an inspiration for historians and playwrights such as Herodotus and Aeschylus. The Greeks had not destroyed the Persians. The Persians continued to play a part in Greek history for the next 150 years. The Greeks knew nothing of Persepolis and therefore could not judge Persia of Xerxes fully. Philip and Alexander of Macedon used the Persian invasion and the destruction of Athens as a pretext to invade the Persian empire.
Assessment of his life and reign
Successes
Smooth accession to the throne
Rebellions in Egypt and Babylon put down
Mobilised an enormous army
Moved the army a great distance into unknown territory
Constructed bridges over Hellespont and Strymon River
Constructed canal at Mount Athos
Organised huge navy
Organised supplies
Persuaded Macedonia, Thessaly and Thebes to medise
Defeated Greeks at Thermopylae
Sacked Athens, burnt temples in revenge for Sardis and Marathon
Returned safely from Greece
Finished Darius’ building projects at Susa
Mobilised workers and built extensively at Persepolis
Built on citadel at Van in Turkey
Extended empire to the east and added Saka
Promoted religion, destroyed daevas, assisted Jews
Ruled for 21 years
Accepted enormous tribute
Failures
Had to punish Babylon twice for rebellion
Troops and leaders not trained to match Greek tactics
Did not reconnoitre Greek coast
Outwitted by Themistocles at Salamis
Lost battles of Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale
Lost numerous male relatives in Greece
Lost many Immortals and foreign troops
Lost territory in Greece and India
Could not control harem intrigues
Was assassinated
Ancient and modern images and interpretations of Xerxes.
Ancient interpretations
Herodotus was born about 484BC and is the most contemporary of the ancient sources. He also travelled in the Persian empire. He is probably the most balanced writer, presenting Xerxes as generous and compassionate, appreciative of natural beauty, but unstable, intolerant of criticism and weak-willed.
Aeschylus was also a contemporary, who fought at Marathon and possibly at Salamis. He portrays Xerxes in his play The Persians as a weakling to be despised. He wished to demonstrate that everything Greek was superior.
Xenophon, writing in the fourth century BC, sees Xerxes as a tyrant and a womaniser.
Later ancient historians have followed this tradition. Although Pausanius tells that Xerxes’ achievements were glittering and Josephus praises his piety, Aelian calls him ridiculous and Cicero despises him.
Modern interpretations
Early scholars saw him as debauched and slothful, weak and degenerate; later scholars are more balanced, trying to judge him in the Persian context of his day.
P.Green (The Greco-Persian Wars, Berkeley, 1996) sums up the position: “Our traditional picture of Xerxes is a caricature, put together from hostile, and faintly contemptuous, Greek propaganda. We see him as…a cowardly despot ruled by his women and his eunuchs…cruel in victory, spineless in defeat. Persian sources…reveal a very different man. Tall, regal and handsome he stands in the Persepolis reliefs, and his proclamations have a ringing dignity which echoes down the ages…”
The Western Tradition
The Western tradition holds Xerxes to be effeminate, ostentatious, a weakling, intolerant, given to fits of temper, brutal, and craving luxuries. Later in his career, he is simply seen as a weak ruler controlled by women and court eunuchs.
The Western tradition is in accord with the Greek representation of the Persian noble – weak, living a life of luxury and extravagance, manipulated by women. Xenophon and Isocrates write of the degeneracy of the Persian leadership and national character under Xerxes, which they blame on the decline in educational standards.
Xerxes' contribution to Persepolis was also traditionally discredited in the west. The tradition taught that Persepolis was the work of Darius, Xerxes' contribution represented artistic and stylistic copies, or staleness, of motifs.
The Eastern Tradition
The Eastern and Asiatic tradition is much the reverse. On the door jams of the Great Palace at Persepolis, Xerxes is described as “Xerxes, Darius the king’s son, the Achaemenid”. In inscriptions he is referred to as Khshavarsha, which probably means “hero among kings”.
He is depicted overall with much kingly presence and stature, a Persian visionary, a serious monarch, most generous with both friends and enemies, and always practising good sense. It is said that he never acted arbitrarily but from strong principles. This directly contradicts the Western version.
The Greek World: 500BC - 440BC
Ionian Revolt- 499-492 BC
498- Aristagoras (tyrant of Miletus) is given aid from Athens (20 ships) and Eretria (5 ships)
“These ships were the beginning of evils for the Greeks” –Herodotus
Athens supported Aristagoras because Athens was opposed to despotism and Athens’ ex- tyrant Hippias who was trying to gain Persian support to reinstate himself as tyrant in Athens.
Consequences of the Ionian Revolt
The Greeks and Ionians were defeated.
The Persians initiated political and tax reforms in Ionia.
Darius sought revenge on Athens and Eretria.
Darius: “Grant, O God, that I may punish the Athenians” -Herodotus
Mardonius’ Expedition- 492 BC
Darius sent his son- in- law Mardonius on an expedition in 492 BC.
Herodotus says the objective was to subjugate Athens, Eretria and as many other Greek states as possible.
Mardonius’ land force quickly took Thrace and Macedonia.
Mardonius and his fleet were shipwrecked in a storm off Mt Athos.
Herodotus reports that 300 ships and 20 000 men were lost and that there were ‘monsters’ from the sea.
Mardonius returned back to Persia with only the consolidation of Great King’s rule in Thrace and Macedonia.
Preparations for the Second Invasion
Darius prepared for another invasion of Greece by island- hopping the Aegean.
Darius sent a messenger to Greece demanding earth and water.
Many Aegean islands submitted to this demand.
The Persians besieged Eretria and enslaved its people in revenge for the burning of Sardis in the Ionian Revolt.
Advised by Hippias, the Persians chose Marathon, in Attica, as the battle ground.
“the best ground for cavalry to manoeuvre in” –Herodotus
Miltiades was one of the ten Athenian generals.
The generals were divided on whether to fight at Marathon but Miltiades persuaded the Polemarch Callimachus to support his push for the battle.
Pheidippides sent to Sparta for help but the Spartans were delayed by a religious festival.
Battle of Marathon- 490 BC
The Athenians were joined by 1 000 Plataeans.
The Greek army waited until Miltiades’ day of command for battle.
The Greeks ran to reduce the effect of the Persian archers.
“they were the first Greeks… to charge at a run, and the first who dared to look without flinching at Persian dress and the men who wore it” –Herodotus
The Greek flanks were strengthened as this was where the weaker Persians were.
The Persians broke through the middle but the Greeks swamped them from the sides.
6 400 Persians and 192 Greeks died (Herodotus 6:117).
The Athenian dead were cremated in the Soros mound.
The Persians fled and escaped by sea, to head for an assault on Athens.
When the Persians were in sight of Athens they saw the Athenian infantry waiting, having just run 40 km from Marathon, and so they turned for Asia.
3 000 Spartans arrived late, surveyed the battle site, the Persians and their armour and weaponry, then congratulated the Athenians and turned for home.
“After the slaughter at Marathon, the already high reputation of Miltiades was greatly increased” –Herodotus
Athenian victory meant Athens was no longer under the tyranny of Hippias.
Victory was a great boost for Athenian democracy.
Archaeological evidence for the Battle of Marathon
Soros Mound (excavations in 1890 revealed bones, ashes, sacrificed animals and funeral vessels)
Corinthian Bronze Hoplite Helmet “Miltiades dedicated me”
Fragment of monument in Athens commemorating victory at Marathon “The valour of these men will shine as a light, imperishable forever”
Reasons for Greek victory at Marathon
Leadership and Strategy
Callimachus listened to Miltiades advice to fight at Marathon
Miltiades took advantage of the absence of Persian cavalry
Miltiades ordered the hoplites to run at the archers
Miltiades knew to strengthen the flanks
Miltiades understood Persian tactics and knew their weaknesses
Persian escape was difficult as they were confined between the hills and the marshes and their ships were offshore
Balcer - The Persians were disorganised and lacked supplies
Superiority of Greek Hoplites
The Greeks were disciplined, had a specific and unique formation, and worked as a team, unlike the Persians
The Greeks were packed into dense ranks called a phalanx
The Greeks had superior armoury- bronze helmets and breastplates (cuirass), a shield (hoplon), a spear, greaves and a short stabbing sword.
The Persians had limited armour- a spear and a shield.
Darius’ defeat at Marathon made him more determined to punish Athens. For three years, he gathered another great army and navy to conquer Greece. Persian plans halted during the Egyptian revolt in 486 BC. Darius died in 485 and was succeeded by Xerxes, who had connections with Demaratus, disposed king of Sparta. Xerxes was persuaded by Madonius that his destiny was to destroy the Greeks.
Herodotus- Xerxes’ army was 5 283 320 from 46 nations with a navy over 3 000 ships, however modern scholars believe it was no more than 800
Mardonius comments on Greek disunity in Herodotus: “they declare war on each other” “they all talk the same language, they ought to be able to find a better way to settle their differences”
The Interwar Period
There followed a ten year interwar period in Athens
Growth of Athenian democracy
Themistocles builds Athenian navy
Defence of Greece prepared by Athens
Athens punished any medising city- states
Themistocles was born in 524 BC and died in 459 BC and was part of the Pesistratid family of tyrants
He rose to political prominence in 493 as archon with no political backing
He persuaded the Athenian assembly to use the silver from Laurium (484) to upgrade the Athenian navy (to 200 triremes, according to Herodotus, or 100 triremes according to Plutarch). He interpreted the Delphic Oracle’s “wooden wall” as the Athenian navy
Themistocles realised that he would never be able to convince Athens to build his navy if he used Persia as the main enemy so he explotied Athens war with Aegina.
“he continued to draw on the Athenians little by little and turn their thoughts in the direction of the sea” –Plutarch
Athens became a maritime power
Aristides opposed Themistocles, fearing that more ships would enhance the political power of the thetes
Themistocles engineered the ostracism of Aristides in 483 BC
Themistocles fortified the port of Piraeus, a more protected harbour than Phalerum
“generally regarded as the man most directly responsible for saving Greece” Plutarch
“most foresighted statesman of his time” –Thucydides
Aristides and Cimon began to build up an alliance against Themistocles
Themistocles was ostracised in 476 BC
The Congress at the Isthmus
In 481 BC, at the Congress of the Isthmus, the Hellenic League was formed between 31 Greek states (the Serpent Column at Delphi lists all these states)
The formation of the Hellenic League meant unity for the Greek states
Athens and Aegina settled a 30 year dispute
An oath was made to punish medising city- states
Athens accepted the Spartan Leonidas as Commander of the allied army and Eurybiades as Commander of the allied fleet, despite being the naval power herself
The influence of Themistocles is apparent in the naval strategy of future battles
Xerxes began advancing with the Persian army and navy, both hugging the coast
There was disagreement as to where to meet the Persians. The Spartans wanted to fallback to the Isthmus, but Themistocles convinced them to send a force of hoplites to meet them further north
Battle of Thermopylae 480 BC
17- 19th September
Themistocles persuaded the Assembly to evacuate Athens
Leonidas and 7 000 soldiers held a position at the narrowest part of the Thermopylae pass- 15 m wide
Upon being informed of the mountain pass, Leonidas sent 1 000 Phocians to guard it
Xerxes’ army was unsuccessful against the Greeks for two days
Ephialtes informed Xerxes of the mountain pass, looking for a “rich reward” –Herodotus
The Persians followed the mountain pass and killed the Phocians
Persian deserters informed Leonidas of the approaching Persians
Leonidas sent 2 600 men back south, remaining with the Athenians, 300 Spartans and 1 100 Boetians
An Oracle told Leonidas and the Spartans to stand firm
The Greeks fought courageously but were encircled and defeated. Leonidas was killed.
This battle at Thermopylae meant that the Persian navy was delayed because they were reliant upon the army for resources