Survivor39
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I have added this new section because I realised how important methodology is in Society & Culture, both in the PIP component and the exam component. You could use the following to help you with your preparation of your exams as the methodologies listed here included both advantages and disadvantages. When you start to collate your information for your chosen PIP topic, decide which methodologies best suit your research, i.e. which methodologies will assist you to gather the most relevant information? And why?
Interviews
Researchers use interviews as a research tool alone, or in combination with a questionnaire. Interviews may range from structured to unstructured and can vary tremendouly in the length of time taken to administer.
Structured Interviews are usually brief and fairly formal; and the wording of the questions is pre-determined and the questions should be asked in the same manner and in the same order for all respondents.
Unstructured Interviews do not usually have specific questions but rather areas of discussion. A lot of information can be obtained from unstructured interviews; however, the analysis of the data collected requires a carefully constructed guide.
Advantages of interviews may include:
- High proportion of returns as repondents are usually willing to co-operate.
- Information obtained can provide the basis for the development of a questionnaire.
- Interviewers can judge which areas are sensitive and ask or phrase questions accordingly.
- Information obtained is usually more complete than from other methods if rapport is established between the interviewer and the interviewee.
- Misinterpretation of questions can be avoided as the oppotunity is available to clarify questions.
Disadvantages of interviews may include:
- Cost of interviews in terms of time and money is usually higher than for other techniques.
- Interviewer may inconsciously bias the responses through the way questions are asked or phrased.
- Questions on attitudes and opinions may reflect either what the respondent thinks the interviewer wants to hear or what he/she thinks would be an acceptable opinion.
- Age, sex, ethnicity and socio-economic status and personality of the interviewer may affect the responses of the interviewee.
- Problems with coding data and drawing comparisions.
Focus Groups
A focus group is similar to an interview but you gather the information from a small discussion group (usually 3 and up to 8).
For dvantages and disadvantages, refer to "Interviews"
Participant observation
Participant observation is a broad term referring to a variety of research activities. The name itself implies the the researcher involved in the observation is also a participant. This is sometimes the case and even when the observer intends to remain removed from the social group he/she is observing, it is often very difficult to do so.
In all cases of participant observation there is a possibility that the observer, through interaction with others in the research setting will affect the data collected and thus the conclusions reached. This is not a major problem provided the issue is addressed in the final report.
Techniques of participant observation include the following.
Identified participant observation situation
In this situation the identity of the person who is doing the observing is known to others in the social situation. The problem in this situation is that the people being observed may not act as they normally would, but rather how they think they should act.
Unidentified participant observation situation (not to confuse with Observation)
The identity of the observer is not known and he/she is free to interact in the situation. However, if he researcher is a stranger entering the social group, interaction may be affected and thus the observations made. If an individual is a member of a social group that he/she wishes to study, the effects on the group of his/her observations may be less, providing the members of the group are not aware that they are the subjects of research.
Personal Reflection
The application of Personal reflection should come naturally in your PIP. Anything that you recall, memories or values, is part of personal reflection. The way to use this methodology effective is not only to recall specific events, but to evaluate them. Don't overly rely on this methodology though.
Case Studies
Case study techniques usually involve the study of one person, one group, one family, one community etc., although sometimes they may be used to study a small group of people or families.
This method is similar to the interview technique and has similar advantages and disadvantages. Perhaps the major problem with the use of case study techniques alone is that the findgings cannot really be generalised to the rest of the population. However, case studies can provide the opportunity to analyse large social systems such as social insititutions where the researcher wants to find out what is happening and why it is happening rather than to obtain information that can be generalised to the rest of the population.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires can be used to investigate a wide variety of social phenomena. They can take many forms and can be used to establish facts and assess attitudes, values, beliefs, and opinions. Questionnaires may contain open-ended questions or closed and structured questions. Closed and structured questions include rating scales, or a choice of responses and alternatives from which to choose, therefore, making it quantitative. Open-ended questions, however, makes your questionnaire more qualitative.
Questionnaires can be administered by a researcher, or research assistant, in person or over the telephone, or they can be self-administered. All self-administered questionnaires will give rise to a non-response rate and the response rate in some cases can be as low as ten per cent (try to avoid that). It is thus necessary in order to distributefar more questionnaires than necessary in order to achieve the responses required for the sample and collect sufficient date.
Advantages of questionnaires:
- Lower cost than personal interview techniques
- Provide large amount of data in a short period of time
- Self-administered questionnaire allows the respondent the opportunity to think about the questions (this can also be a disadvantage).
- Closed or structured questions may be able to be processed by computer.
- Self-administered questionnaires may provide information about sensitive issues while allowing a sense of privacy.
- Mail questionnaires provide for a wide coverage and thus a wide sample of people.
- Self-administered questionnaires may avoid interviewer bias.
Disadvantages of questionnaires:
- Non-response rates are usually high.
- They do not have the same flexibility as interview techniques as there are usually limits as to how much information a respondent can include on the questionnaire.
- Only a particular type of people may respond to the questionnaire and this may produce a biased sample.
- Respondents may not respond as they should, but rather how they feel they are expected to respond.
- Questions may be misinterpreted when the questionnaire is self-administered and the meaning of questions cannot be clarified.
Action Research
Action Research is an informal, qualitative, interpretive, reflective and experimental methodology that requires all the participants to be collaborateive researchers. Action research is carried out by people who usually recognise a problem or limitation in their workplace situation and, together, devise a plan to counteract the problem, implement the plan, observe what happens, reflect on these outcomes, revise the plan, implement it, reflect, revise and so on. Action research can be thought of as a spiral of planning, acting, observing and reflecting, occuring through time until the most desirable outcomes for all participants are achieved.
More Soon
Interviews
Researchers use interviews as a research tool alone, or in combination with a questionnaire. Interviews may range from structured to unstructured and can vary tremendouly in the length of time taken to administer.
Structured Interviews are usually brief and fairly formal; and the wording of the questions is pre-determined and the questions should be asked in the same manner and in the same order for all respondents.
Unstructured Interviews do not usually have specific questions but rather areas of discussion. A lot of information can be obtained from unstructured interviews; however, the analysis of the data collected requires a carefully constructed guide.
Advantages of interviews may include:
- High proportion of returns as repondents are usually willing to co-operate.
- Information obtained can provide the basis for the development of a questionnaire.
- Interviewers can judge which areas are sensitive and ask or phrase questions accordingly.
- Information obtained is usually more complete than from other methods if rapport is established between the interviewer and the interviewee.
- Misinterpretation of questions can be avoided as the oppotunity is available to clarify questions.
Disadvantages of interviews may include:
- Cost of interviews in terms of time and money is usually higher than for other techniques.
- Interviewer may inconsciously bias the responses through the way questions are asked or phrased.
- Questions on attitudes and opinions may reflect either what the respondent thinks the interviewer wants to hear or what he/she thinks would be an acceptable opinion.
- Age, sex, ethnicity and socio-economic status and personality of the interviewer may affect the responses of the interviewee.
- Problems with coding data and drawing comparisions.
Focus Groups
A focus group is similar to an interview but you gather the information from a small discussion group (usually 3 and up to 8).
For dvantages and disadvantages, refer to "Interviews"
Participant observation
Participant observation is a broad term referring to a variety of research activities. The name itself implies the the researcher involved in the observation is also a participant. This is sometimes the case and even when the observer intends to remain removed from the social group he/she is observing, it is often very difficult to do so.
In all cases of participant observation there is a possibility that the observer, through interaction with others in the research setting will affect the data collected and thus the conclusions reached. This is not a major problem provided the issue is addressed in the final report.
Techniques of participant observation include the following.
Identified participant observation situation
In this situation the identity of the person who is doing the observing is known to others in the social situation. The problem in this situation is that the people being observed may not act as they normally would, but rather how they think they should act.
Unidentified participant observation situation (not to confuse with Observation)
The identity of the observer is not known and he/she is free to interact in the situation. However, if he researcher is a stranger entering the social group, interaction may be affected and thus the observations made. If an individual is a member of a social group that he/she wishes to study, the effects on the group of his/her observations may be less, providing the members of the group are not aware that they are the subjects of research.
Personal Reflection
The application of Personal reflection should come naturally in your PIP. Anything that you recall, memories or values, is part of personal reflection. The way to use this methodology effective is not only to recall specific events, but to evaluate them. Don't overly rely on this methodology though.
Case Studies
Case study techniques usually involve the study of one person, one group, one family, one community etc., although sometimes they may be used to study a small group of people or families.
This method is similar to the interview technique and has similar advantages and disadvantages. Perhaps the major problem with the use of case study techniques alone is that the findgings cannot really be generalised to the rest of the population. However, case studies can provide the opportunity to analyse large social systems such as social insititutions where the researcher wants to find out what is happening and why it is happening rather than to obtain information that can be generalised to the rest of the population.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires can be used to investigate a wide variety of social phenomena. They can take many forms and can be used to establish facts and assess attitudes, values, beliefs, and opinions. Questionnaires may contain open-ended questions or closed and structured questions. Closed and structured questions include rating scales, or a choice of responses and alternatives from which to choose, therefore, making it quantitative. Open-ended questions, however, makes your questionnaire more qualitative.
Questionnaires can be administered by a researcher, or research assistant, in person or over the telephone, or they can be self-administered. All self-administered questionnaires will give rise to a non-response rate and the response rate in some cases can be as low as ten per cent (try to avoid that). It is thus necessary in order to distributefar more questionnaires than necessary in order to achieve the responses required for the sample and collect sufficient date.
Advantages of questionnaires:
- Lower cost than personal interview techniques
- Provide large amount of data in a short period of time
- Self-administered questionnaire allows the respondent the opportunity to think about the questions (this can also be a disadvantage).
- Closed or structured questions may be able to be processed by computer.
- Self-administered questionnaires may provide information about sensitive issues while allowing a sense of privacy.
- Mail questionnaires provide for a wide coverage and thus a wide sample of people.
- Self-administered questionnaires may avoid interviewer bias.
Disadvantages of questionnaires:
- Non-response rates are usually high.
- They do not have the same flexibility as interview techniques as there are usually limits as to how much information a respondent can include on the questionnaire.
- Only a particular type of people may respond to the questionnaire and this may produce a biased sample.
- Respondents may not respond as they should, but rather how they feel they are expected to respond.
- Questions may be misinterpreted when the questionnaire is self-administered and the meaning of questions cannot be clarified.
Action Research
Action Research is an informal, qualitative, interpretive, reflective and experimental methodology that requires all the participants to be collaborateive researchers. Action research is carried out by people who usually recognise a problem or limitation in their workplace situation and, together, devise a plan to counteract the problem, implement the plan, observe what happens, reflect on these outcomes, revise the plan, implement it, reflect, revise and so on. Action research can be thought of as a spiral of planning, acting, observing and reflecting, occuring through time until the most desirable outcomes for all participants are achieved.
More Soon
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